Wittgenstein's Philosophical Grammar: A Neglected Discussion of Vagueness

In this paper I explore a neglected discussion of vagueness put forward by Wittgenstein in his Philosophical Grammar (1932–34). In this work, unlike Philosophical Investigations (1953), Wittgenstein not only discusses the venerable Sorites paradox but provides a novel conception of vagueness using an analogy with coin tossing and converging intervals. As he sees it, the problematic picture of vagueness arises because we conflate aspects of the functioning of vague concepts with those of non‐vague ones. Thus, while we accept that vague concepts have no sharp cut‐off points (are boundaryless), we nevertheless retain the idea that we can progress towards the penumbra the way we progress towards the cut‐off points of non‐vague concepts. As a potential remedy, Wittgenstein's analogy with coin tossing and converging intervals replaces this picture and provides an understanding of the functioning of vague concepts in which no notion of a progression arises.     

A longitudinal twin study of the genetic and environmental etiology of maternal hostile-reactive behavior during infancy and toddlerhood

Children's negative characteristics are thought to be a factor in evoking hostile parenting responses. This can result in genotype/environment correlations (rGE) in which children's heritable traits influence the parenting they experience. We did genetic analyses on 292 mothers' self-reported hostile-reactive behaviors toward each of their twins at 5, 18 and 30 months. Finding heritability for a parenting behavior analyzed as a child phenotype is evidence of rGE correlation. The heritability of maternal behavior was modest (29% at 5 months, 0% at 18 months, and 25% at 30 months) and longitudinal analyses indicated that genetic factors at 5 and 30 months were uncorrelated. Common environment factors, probably reflecting characteristics of the mothers, were the main source of variance at the three ages and were highly correlated through time. We concluded that children's heritable characteristics evoked maternal negative response at specific times, but were not responsible for the stability of maternal hostility from infancy to toddlerhood.     

Mentoring Interns and Postdoctoral Residents in Academic Health Sciences Center

This article was co-authored by a senior mentor and one of her students who worked with her as both an intern and a postdoctoral fellow. It is an expanded version of a presentation given by the first author after receiving the Association of Psychologists in Academic Health Centers (APAHC) Distinguished Achievement in Teaching Award. The article offers a historical view on mentoring, defines and describes the term, and delineates the characteristics of good mentors and mentees. The significant impact of mentoring on the professional and personal development of psychology interns and postdoctoral residents and their mentors in academic health centers is explored. Techniques for developing, maintaining, and promoting effective mentoring relationships are provided and the ethical considerations related to mentoring are examined. This article is based upon an invited address, “Mentoring of Predoctoral Interns and Postdoctoral Fellows in an Academic Health Sciences Center” given by the first author in recognition of the author’s receipt of the Association of Psychologists in Academic Health Centers 2005 Award for Distinguished Achievement in Teaching. The address was presented at the Annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, LA, August, 2006.     

“The Clearing”: Conversations at the Wabash Center

Abstract. The study of religion seeks to understand life and life practices, which means that it is internally suited to dynamic teaching-learning methods such as exploration, conversation, and imaginative construction. Wabash Center hospitality enables reflective conversations about the nature of our craft, the shape of our vocation, and the direction of our discipline.     

Situational effects may account for gain scores in cognitive ability testing: A longitudinal SEM approach

Mean gain scores for cognitive ability tests between two sessions in a selection setting are now a robust finding, yet not fully understood. Many authors do not attribute such gain scores to an increase in the target abilities. Our approach consists of testing a longitudinal SEM model suitable to this view. We propose to model the scores' changes of a battery of tests between two sessions with a single factor, namely the change in the situational component of the scores. The situational component encompasses all effects due to the specificity of the state of the person in the current situation (e.g., anxiety level, tiredness, test-taking practice) and is allowed to vary from one session to another. By definition, this single component is supposed to influence all tests at a given session. In particular cases such as high-stake selection settings, where applicants are likely to train themselves before retaking the tests, situational factors might even suffice to explain mean score increases. Empirically, our latent change model closely fitted the scores of 752 applicants for entry into the French Aircraft Pilot Training, gathered on a set of three tests (visual perception, mechanical comprehension, and selective attention). Gain scores of moderate to strong effect sizes could be explained by common situational effects, with no need for admitting change on ability components. Therefore, gain scores may be understood as construct-irrelevant changes.     

Examen d'une erreur fondamentale dans la perception du hasard

Un des principaux facteurs expliquant le jeu excessif serait les perceptions erronées qu'entretiennent les individus concernant le hasard. Cet article vise à préciser les perceptions du joueur en analysant ses verbalisations lors de la production ou de la reconnaissance de suites aléatoires. Deux études empiriques ont été réalisées. E est prédit que la majorité des gens ont une perception erronée à l'égard du hasard et qu'il existe une relation entre le nombre d'issues possibles (par exemple deux lors du tir d'une pièce de monnaie ou six lors du tir d'un dé) et le nombre de verbalisations erronées faisant référence aux événements passés de la suite. Comme on le prévoyait, près de 70% des verbalisations sont l'expression d'une perception erronée, la plupart se référant à des liens de dépendance entre les événements de la suite. Cependant, l'augmentation du nombre d'issues possibles n'a pas d'effet significatif sur la proportion de perceptions erronées. La discussion met en relief les implications pratiques et théoriques des perceptions inadéquates des joueurs sur l'illusion du contrôle du jeu et des comportements excessifs en résultant.     

Lexical Retrieval Deficit in Picture Naming: Implications for Word Production Models

In models of word retrieval, it is common to differentiate lexical-semantic (word meaning) and lexical-phonological (word form) levels. There has been considerable interest in the relationship between these two levels. The so-called discrete two-stage model claims that phonological activation follows selection at the lexical-semantic level and is limited only to the selected item. In contrast, nondiscrete (interactive and cascade) models assume that all activated lexical-semantic candidates are also phonologically activated to some extent. We addressed this issue by studying an anomic patient who suffered from a partial functional disconnection between lexical-semantic and lexical-phonological levels. A multitarget repeated naming task with phonological training was employed. Systematic manipulation of semantic and phonological relatedness between the to-be-named items indicated that our patient's word error patterns were sensitive to both types of lexical relatedness. A delayed repetition task employing the same items failed to show similar effects, suggesting that they were specific to naming. The discrete two-stage model is unable to explain the observed effects of semantic and phonological relatedness. However, they are consistent with assumptions of nondiscrete models of lexical retrieval. In addition to the theoretical implications of this study, the observed effects of lexical context on word retrieval have implications for treatment of anomia.     

Social problem solving: A moderator of the relation between negative life stress and depression symptoms in children

The social problem-solving skill of generating effective alternative solutions was tested as a moderator of the relation between negative life stress and depressed mood in children. Boys ( n= 25) and girls ( n= 25), ages 8 to 12 years, from inner-city, lower socioeconomic group families, completed measures of depression symptoms, negative impact of life events, and quantity and effectiveness of alternative solutions to social problems. Results indicated that the effectiveness of alternative solutions children generate in response to peer social problems moderates the relation between stress and depression. Children who experienced a high impact of negative life events, with less effective social problem-solving skills, reported higher levels of depression compared to children who experienced a high impact of negative life events but exhibited more effective social problem-solving skills. Results are discussed in terms of alternative theoretical models for the mechanisms whereby effective social problem-solving skills moderate stress-related depression.     

False physiological feedback and emotion: Experimenter demand and salience effects

Four experiments examined the hypothesis that the Valins (1966) false physiological feedback effect with attractiveness ratings of slides is due to experimenter demand. Experiments 1 and 2 showed significant feedback effects with 5-sec feedback periods, previously reported by Barefoot and Straub (1971) to be too brief a time to search the slides for a cause of the apparent physiological arousal. Experiments 3 and 4 had 17 variations of instructions (emotional, nonemotional), stimuli (slides of people, scenic tourist slides), and type of feedback information (heart rate, eyeblink, or none). The typical false feedback effect was found under many conditions that did not seem to meet the presumptive attributional requirements for the effect. In Experiment 4, only subjects who said they were supposed to rate feedback slides higher showed the effect, regardless of instructions, stimuli, or type of feedback. The overall results are interpreted in terms of experimenter demand and stimulus salience effects.