Young children's knowledge of their memory span: effects of task and experience

This study investigated the hypothesis that young children have knowledge about their memory that they may be unable to articulate, but are able to reflect on and use in problem-solving. Forty-eight kindergarteners made one of two types of judgments about their memory span for words. Half of the children made prospective verbal predictions about the number of words they thought they could recall from a list of 10. The other half made concurrent, nonverbal predictions by listening to words on a tape and manually stopping the tape when they heard as many words as they thought they could recall. Children's actual recall for words was then assessed. All children participated in multiple trials to assess the effect of task experience on their predictions. Analyses revealed that predictions made in the concurrent task were significantly more accurate than those made in the prospective task. All children lowered their predictions across trials, although only in the concurrent task were children's final-trial predictions not significantly greater than their actual recall. No meaningful effects or interactions were associated with actual recall scores. These results revealed that young children manifested greater memory knowledge when this knowledge was assessed through their concurrent problem-solving behavior rather than through their prospective verbal predictions.     

Diagnostic morbidity and its relationship to severity of ideation for a nonpsychiatric sample of chronic and severe suicide ideators

This study examined the relationships of frequency and type of psychiatric diagnosis to suicidality within a sample of chronically and severely ideating college-aged students (N=78). The most common diagnoses were the depressive disorders, comprising 43% of all diagnoses, followed by anxiety disorders, comprising 17% of all diagnoses. Retrospective reports of childhood diagnoses were also quite common, comprising 38% of all diagnoses. Number of psychiatric diagnoses was significantly correlated with severity of suicidal ideation (r=.27,p<.02). Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that retrospective childhood diagnoses of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and separation anxiety disorder significantly predicted 19% of the variance in severity of suicidal ideation after controlling for current diagnoses of major depression and PTSD. When entry of childhood and current diagnoses were reversed, PTSD significantly predicted 4% of the variance in severity of suicidal ideation, while major depression was rendered nonsignificant. Severe suicide ideation, therefore, may be a product of early psychological problems as well as the number of such problems.     

A HIERARCHICAL CONSTRUCT OF SELF-MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO QUALITY OF WORK LIFE AND PERCEIVED WORK GROUP EFFECTIVENESS

This study validates the self-management leadership theory as operationalized by the Self-Management Leadership Questionnaire (Manz & Sims, 1987) in a large telephone company. The sample for this study is 390 self-managing and 412 traditionally managed employees and 94 external leaders from 58 self-managing and 60 traditionally managed teams. Results support Manz and Sims' 6-factor pattern at the first-order level, and in addition, identify a common second-order factor. The hierarchical factor structure is invariant in employee and leader samples drawn from both self-managing and traditionally managed work teams, suggesting that the construct of self-managing leadership is similar for members and leaders of both types of teams. Respondents perceive slightly more self-management leadership behaviors in the self-managing than the traditional work teams. Respondents evaluate self-managing work teams as more effective than traditional work teams, and this difference is moderate in size. Self-managing leadership behaviors are positively associated with QWL (mainly employee satisfaction) and self-rated effectiveness for both self-managing and traditional teams. In general, self-managing work teams are not that different from traditionally managed groups in the relationship of self-managing leadership to outcomes. We conclude that self-management leadership is a hierarchical concept, constituted of specific strategies as well as a general orientation toward empowering employees. These leadership behaviors are applicable to managing both traditional and self-managing work teams.     

A META-ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONS AMONG TRAINING CRITERIA

An augmented framework for training criteria based on Kirkpatrick's (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) model divides training reactions into affective and utility reactions, and learning into post-training measures of learning, retention, and behavior/skill demonstration. A total of 34 studies yielding 115 correlations were analyzed meta-analytically. Results included substantial reliabilities across training criteria and reasonable convergence among subdivisions of criteria within a larger level. Utility-type reaction measures were more strongly related to learning or on-the-job performance (transfer) than affective-type reaction measures. Moreover, utility-type reaction measures were stronger correlates of transfer than were measures of immediate or retained learning. These latter findings support recent concurrent thinking regarding use of reactions in training (e.g., Warr & Bunce, 1995). Implications for choosing and developing training criteria are discussed.     

EFFECTS OF RATER TRAINING AND PARTICIPATION ON COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY: AN EXPLORATION OF SCHNEIER'S COGNITIVE REINTERPRETATION

Schneier (1977) proposed that rater cognitive complexity interacts with format to affect the psychometric soundness of ratings. He also speculated that cognitive complexity may be enhanced by having raters participate in training and/or scale construction programs. This study was designed to test these latter hypotheses, while also providing a partial replication of Schneier's original research. Ninety-six undergraduate students were assigned to four groups. One participated in the construction of a set of BARS and was trained in their use, a second participated in BARS construction only, a third received training only, and the fourth served as a control group. All subjects were administered a measure of cognitive complexity before and after the experimental treatments. Also, all subjects evaluated five simulated ratees using the BARS. A training × participation (2 × 2) ANOCOV indicated no change in cognitive complexity scores as a result of the experimental treatments. A training × participation × (nominalized) cognitive complexity (2 × 2 × 2) MANOVA on mean ratings for the five stimuli found no effects on leniency error. A similar MANOVA on variances of ratings provided little evidence for effects on halo error. These results, taken in conjunction with those of other investigators who have failed to replicate Schneier's findings, suggest that the cognitive reinterpretation should be accepted with caution at best.     

Psychological trauma: What clergy need to know

This article addresses the need for clergy to be better informed regarding the assessment and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and provides a quick reference guide to assist clergy in the recognition of PTSD with guidelines for interventions. In a society that is marked by unprecedented levels of violence and a growing shortage of mental health services, clergy are increasingly confronted with situations involving psychological trauma that require expert crisis intervention skills. This article provides specific, concrete guidelines for clergy confronted with situations that require knowledge about PTSD.