Reaction time methods in the study of motor programming: the precuing of hand, digit, and duration

Recent reaction time analysis of motor programming has utilized a precue stimulus that provides advance information about some or all of the attributes for the upcoming motor response. This kind of precue typically confounds the number of remaining stimuli with the motoric processes under investigation (Zelaznik, 1978). In Experiments 1 and 2 the precuing of hand, digit, and duration of a key press response was manipulated. A new precuing procedure was utilized that does not confound the number of stimuli with the motoric processes under investigation. The findings of Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that none of the advance information was helpful in reducing reaction time and as such, suggest that these features of movement are not selected in any particular order. Experiment 3 compared this new method of precuing to the other, traditional method. The results of this experiment suggested that there is parallel processing of the perceptual and motor mental operations in this reaction-time task, since there was an underadditive interaction between the number of stimulus response alternatives and the non-precued movement dimensions. This paper highlights problems inherent in the utilization of precursing methods to understand motor programming processes. It appears that a better understanding about the variables involved in movement control is necessary before examining the order of selection of those variables.     

Ethical dilemmas in forensic evaluations

Ethical issues emerging from forensic assessments are addressed from clinical and research perspectives. The relevance of agency, forensic identification, and attitudes toward defendants are explored within the framework of ethical practice. Finally, the ethical role of mental health professionals in the courtroom, the scope and basis of their testimony, and the rendering of conclusory opinions are discussed within a psycholegal context.     

Conflict of interest between therapist-patient confidentiality and the duty to report sexual abuse of children

All 51 jurisdictions in the United States require physicians to report suspected child abuse. In most jurisdictions, reporting requirements override both confidentiality and privilege associated with the physician-patient relationship. The authors review the literature relevant to the conflict between privacy and reporting abuse and report the results of a national survey of therapists at sex offender treatment units. They discuss ethical problems experienced under these statutes by therapists who attempt to provide treatment for sex offenders, and by therapists who are required to report past instances of child abuse even when there is no evidence of ongoing abuse.     

Reply to silberberg and ziriax

Silberberg and Ziriax (1985) report that a modification of Vaughan's (1981) procedure produces results inconsistent with melioration (the position advocated by Vaughan) but consistent with a process they term molecular maximizing. Here it is argued that the theory of molecular maximization is not sufficiently unambiguous that researchers other than the developers can test its predictions, and that in any case none of the data presented by Silberberg and Ziriax are both clearly consistent with molecular maximization and inconsistent with melioration.     

Competitive fixed-interval performance in humans

Two persons responded in the same session in separate cubicles, but under a single schedule of reinforcement. Each time reinforcement was programmed, only the first response to occur, that is, the response of only one of the subjects, was reinforced. “Competitive” behavior that developed under these conditions was examined in three experiments. In Experiment 1 subjects responded under fixed-interval (FI) 30-s, 60-s, and 90-s schedules of reinforcement. Under the competition condition, relative to baseline conditions, the response rates were higher and the pattern was “break-and-run.” In Experiment 2, subjects were exposed first to a conventional FI schedule and then to an FI competition schedule. Next, they were trained to respond under either a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) or fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, and finally, the initial FI competition condition was reinstated. In this second exposure to the FI competition procedure, DRL subjects responded at lower rates than were emitted during the initial exposure to that condition and FR subjects responded at higher rates. For all subjects, however, responding gradually returned to the break-and-run pattern that had occurred during the first FI competition condition. Experiment 3 assessed potential variables contributing to the effects of the competitive FI contingencies during Experiments 1 and 2. Subjects were exposed to FI schedules where (a) probability of reinforcement at completion of each fixed interval was varied, or (b) a limited hold was in effect for reinforcement. Only under the limited hold was responding similar to that observed in previous experiments.     

目的、意向和意识

本文提出了一个意向性目标搜寻的计算机模型,它有两个部分,静态部分包括一个目标表征和到达这个目标的程序。动态部分是一个感觉输入、中间信息加工,行为输出的重复的反馈循环。人类意向必然伴有意识,但机器人则可能无意识而有意向。 利用目标搜寻系统机器人模型,我们对目标搜寻系统的目的连续统下了定义;这个连续统从简单的直接反应系统一直到意向性系统。对这个目的连续统有两种传统的解释:一是柏拉图、亚里士多德和普罗提诺的终极原因理论,二是希腊原子论者和现代进化生物学家的还原主义学说。本文评价了这些学说。 本文考察了几种类型的意识机能,提出了以自动机为依据的意识理论,比较了人类和计算机。从计算机结构的角度来看,人类意识是一类特殊的计算机控制系统。     

攻击的社会性认知学习的调节

这项研究探索了小学儿童的攻击与影响儿童是否采取攻击行为的社会认知的两个等级的联系.给攻击性和非攻击性的儿童(平均年龄为11.3岁)提供二个调查表,让他们进行回答.一个调查表是测量儿童对自己进行攻击的能力及相应的行为的认识(即自我实力的认识),而另一个调查表则测量儿童对攻击性行为会得到的奖励和惩罚的后果的认识.     

对算术和阅读中的成就与态度的长远预见

 这项纵向研究的目的在于了解:(1)在幼儿园里所提供的认知任务对儿童的学业成就的预见性;(2)教师和母亲对儿童的一般认知能力和实际成就的评价对于学业态度的预言性.在进入幼儿园以前对儿童进行初试,255名幼儿园儿童被追踪到一、二、三、五、十年级,认知任务中的一个分项目与中学成就分数保持着相关,特别是在阅读方面.十年级儿童的能力的自我概念、成功期望、成功的价值以及对任务难度的认识都表现出性别和学习内容范围的影响.男孩往往偏爱算术,而女孩则更喜欢阅读.儿童的学业态度与母亲对他的早期评价及实际成就分数都有相关,女孩尤为如此.母亲的评价与女孩对算术的态度有正相关.在全部11个年龄时期中都存在着性别差异.     

性别标定和性别类型行为的选择

本研究采用性别标定作业,测验了43名出生21个月到40个月的儿童辨别男女孩和男女成人图片的能力,并在通常按性别类型分的三种行为(选择玩具、攻击性和同龄游戏伙伴的选择)上对通过性别作业的儿童(平均年龄30个月)与未通过性别作业的儿童(平均年龄26个月)进行了比较.本研究预测,通过了性别作业的儿童会选择同性伙伴和更有性别特点的玩具,通过了性别作业的女孩攻击性会减弱,男孩则没有变化.但结果只证实了攻击性和选择同龄伙伴的预测,选择玩具的预测则没有得到证实.     

儿童的模仿和语言发展

某些关于儿童语言获得研究者认为,模仿与言语获得没有关系(Slobin,1967).早在六十年代,不少人研究了儿童直接模仿成人句子的效果(Brown,Bellugi,1964;Cazden1965).他们认为,尽管模仿在儿童语音、新词语的获得和习惯语表达方面起着重要作用,但是,并不能说明模仿在儿童句法获得中起作用.Slobin(1967)指出,在某种情况下,儿童能对成人的句子正确地模仿,只是能模仿的这些句子比儿童自发的句子(Spontaneous sentences)稍长或稍复杂些.我们认为,这种模仿能加强儿童的句法能力,因此有利于儿童下一阶段句法能力的发展.近些年来,Bloom,Hood和Lightbown(1974)提供了儿童早期言语发展的证据,表明有模仿倾向的儿童似乎是通过模仿来掌握新的语义句法关系以及新的词汇、习语.有模仿倾向的儿童在语气材料和上下文知识的处理中是积极的.这些研究涉及到句法,也涉及到发展方面的作用.