Anxiety and affiliation in children

Hypotheses about the relationship between anxiety and affiliation derived from the psychoanalytic, drive, and social comparison models were tested by exposing high anxious (HA) and low anxious (LA)Ss to stress and subsequently to conditions meant to fulfill either nurturance or information needs. Unstressed and non-need fulfilled control groups were included. (N=224 grade school children.) Stress significantly increased the strength of adult affiliating in HA Ss; nurturance reduced it. Peer affiliating was not influenced by stress or information, nor did the conditions affect the affiliation of LASs. Results supported the hypothesis that dependency motives mediate the anxiety-affiliation relationship.This study is based on a doctoral dissertation completed at Yale University. The author thanks Prof. Seymour Sarason, who directed the thesis, and the children, teachers, and school psychologists of Milford, Conn. whose cooperation made this study possible.     

Child- versus teacher-administered token programs in a psychiatric hospital school

The purpose of this study was to: (a) compare student-administered token programs with similar programs administered by professional teachers, (b) investigate the contribution of feedback to the success of token systems, (c) compare the effectiveness of peer and teacher feedback, and (d) test a sequence of withdrawal from token programs designed to increase generalization. Results indicated that (a) peers could do just as well as teachers in reducing disruptive behavior through a token program, (b) feedback is not solely responsible for the effectiveness of token reinforcement, (c) peer feedback may be more effective than teacher feedback, and (d) withdrawal from token reinforcement to feedback may be a successful method of retarding the increases in disruptive behavior usually found when backup reinforcers are eliminated.The project was supported by Grant OEG 0-71-2872 (607) from the U.S. Department of Education and Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The opinions expressed herein, however, do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S. Office of Education, and no official endorsement by that Office should be inferred. The author would like to thank Drs. L. Krasner, A. O. Ross, and K. Feldman for their assistance throughout the study, and Dr. K. D. O'Leary for his invaluable help. Also gratefully acknowledged is the help of R. Spitalnik, R. Kent, M. Hageman. S. Ransom, W. Kaler, S. Golembeski and E. Howard.     

A problem-solving model for teaching remedial arithmetic to handicapped young children

An operant problem-solving model was used to assist two handicapped young boys to learn the concept of number. During the initial baseline condition, with intermittent teacher-attention contingencies in a classroom setting, both boys were performing number concept tasks at about the 50% level of accuracy. The situation was changed to a one-to-one, tutor-pupil arrangement, with continuous reinforcement for correct responses. This alteration failed to increase the subjects' accuracy rates. Training was initiated in which the covert part of the response chain was made overt (e.g., attending and counting out loud) so that mediating responses could be monitored and reinforced. Once the subjects were performing at a high degree of accuracy, the reinforcers for the mediating responses were systematically eliminated and only final solution responses were reinforced. Accuracy of problem solutions remained high after training.This research was supported by the U.S. Office of Education, Division of Research, Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, Project No. 23–2030, Grant No. OEG-0-9-232030-0762(032). Linda S. Berner contributed to the execution of the study. Her assistance is greatly appreciated.     

不同社会群体特征对内隐领导因素的影响

研究发现,中国人内隐领导理论的内容由个人品德、目标有效性、人际能力和多面性四个因素构成。不同的年龄、职业和教育水平等评分者的特点,对领导诸因素的评分有着显著的影响。综合分析发现,教育水平是影响内隐领导因素评分的主要变量。另外,各组都倾向于把人际能力作为领导最大的特质来加以评分。     

关于流行性感冒大流行的几个问题

流行性感冒(流感)大流行的发生是有其生物学和社会学基础的,从现在至未来很长的时间内,流感大流行的再现是不可避免的。但是人类在疫灾面前没有必要恐慌,主动、积极、科学的应对,可以把流感大流行对人类和人类生活的危害程度减至最低。     

国际合作中知情同意面临的难题及思考

目前在医学研究的国际合作中,知情同意原则在实施中出现了许多争议和难题.结合一些典型案例,对知情同意的跨文化研究、知情同意表格的误解以及保护受试者与自由研究之间的权衡等问题进行了深入地分析.指出:加强交流、相互尊重、求同存异是解决跨文化研究的必由之路;严格审查、加强监管是避免知情同意流于形式的重要手段;鼓励与防范并举才能达到双赢的局面.