Risking Future Generations

Many of the policy choices we face that have implications for the lives of future generations involve creating a risk that they will live lives that are significantly compromised. I argue that we can fruitfully make use of the resources of Scanlon’s contractualist account of moral reasoning to make sense of the intuitive idea that, in many cases, the objection to adopting a policy that puts the interest of future generations at risk is that doing so wrongs those who will live in the further future.     

Average group behavior does not represent individual behavior in classical conditioning of the honeybee

Conditioned behavior as observed during classical conditioning in a group of identically treated animals provides insights into the physiological process of learning and memory formation. However, several studies in vertebrates found a remarkable difference between the group-average behavioral performance and the behavioral characteristics of individual animals. Here, we analyzed a large number of data (1640 animals) on olfactory conditioning in the honeybee (Apis mellifera). The data acquired during absolute and differential classical conditioning differed with respect to the number of conditioning trials, the conditioned odors, the intertrial intervals, and the time of retention tests. We further investigated data in which animals were tested for spontaneous recovery from extinction. In all data sets we found that the gradually increasing group-average learning curve did not adequately represent the behavior of individual animals. Individual behavior was characterized by a rapid and stable acquisition of the conditioned response (CR), as well as by a rapid and stable cessation of the CR following unrewarded stimuli. In addition, we present and evaluate different model hypotheses on how honeybees form associations during classical conditioning by implementing a gradual learning process on the one hand and an all-or-none learning process on the other hand. In summary, our findings advise that individual behavior should be recognized as a meaningful predictor for the internal state of a honeybee--irrespective of the group-average behavioral performance.     

HIV-1 Infection, Neuroendocrine Abnormalities, and Clinical Outcomes

Different lines of evidence suggest that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is complicated by a variety of adverse effects on neuroendocrine systems. Soon after the discovery of HIV-1, reports began to appear suggesting that a number of neurotransmitter and neuroendocrine activities were negatively impacted by this infection. In 1987 it was observed that fine-needle aspiration of the lung in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome resulted in syncopal reactions. Subsequently, an abnormality in the autonomic nervous system was reported in these patients. However, investigations in this area have remained limited due to the assumption that HIV-1-mediated activation of various endocrine systems was related to the major life stressor of living with a fatal disease. Evidence accumulated over the years has indicated, instead, that there are various other mechanisms in addition to life stressors that also play an important role in negatively impacting the neuroendocrine systems in this infection. This article examines various developments that have taken place in this area in order to provide avenues for future research.     

Visual short-term memory for sequential arrays

The capacity of visual short-term memory (VSTM) for a single visual display has been investigated in past research, but VSTM for multiple sequential arrays has been explored only recently. In this study, we investigate the capacity of VSTM across two sequential arrays separated by a variable stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). VSTM for spatial locations (Experiment 1), colors (Experiments 2-4), orientations (Experiments 3 and 4), and conjunction of color and orientation (Experiment 4) were tested, with the SOA across the two sequential arrays varying from 100 to 1,500 msec. We find that VSTM for the trailing array is much better than VSTM for the leading array, but when averaged across the two arrays VSTM has a constant capacity independent of the SOA. We suggest that multiple displays compete for retention in VSTM and that separating information into two temporally discrete groups does not enhance the overall capacity of VSTM.     

Visual short-term memory for two sequential arrays: One integrated representation or two separate representations?

Two dot arrays, each containing a different set of six randomly selected locations from a 5 × 5 matrix, were presented briefly and were separated by an interstimulus interval (ISI) of 0, 200, 500, or 1,500 msec. Subjects were asked to remember these locations and to report whether a probe dot matched the locations in memory. To find out whether the subjects had formed an integrated representation of the two arrays, the probe dot was accompanied by matrix elements from the first array, from the second array, or from both arrays. Memory for Array 1 was significantly impaired when the retrieval context was drawn from Array 2, and vice versa, suggesting that the two arrays were represented separately. This effect was observed only at an ISI of 500 msec or longer. We propose that as Array 1 is better consolidated, its representation becomes more separated from that of Array 2.     

HIV-1 infection and its impact on the HPA axis, cytokines, and cognition

Immediately after infection, Human immunodeficiency virus, type 1 (HIV-1) enters the central nervous system (CNS) and is localized in highest concentration in the hippocampus and basal ganglia. Since these areas are associated with HPA axis and autonomic activities as well as cognition, it has been hypothesized that these functions will be impacted adversely in HIV-1 infection. In the treatment of HIV infection, although the highly potent antiretroviral (HAART) drugs have been effective in reducing peripheral viral load and prolonging life expectancy, these drugs do not cross the blood-brain barrier in therapeutic concentrations. Therefore, it has been proposed that the beneficial effects of HAART on the CNS will be limited. Our investigations on seropositive individuals, showing hypo-reactivity of the autonomic system and HPA axis activity suggest that HIV-1 infection is a model of chronic stress. Furthermore, an elevated baseline TNF-alpha level as well as its increased reactivity to an alpha-adrenergic challenge among HIV-1+ individuals, may lead to additional neurodegeneration. It is proposed that the effects of HIV-1 infection on the brain will have implications for neurocognitive and mental health functioning in seropositive individuals even in patients undergoing HAART therapy. These outcomes may result in the need to develop facilities for long term "care-giving".     

First record of geophagy in Jungle Babbler (Turdoides striata) prior to egg-laying: an instinct for calcium supplement

Animal Cognition - Geophagy has been documented in different animal taxa including Aves and particularly in Passeriformes. However, no geophagic activity has been reported in the genus Turdoides of...     

Promoting resilience to depression among couples during pregnancy: The protective functions of intimate relationship satisfaction and self-compassion

Pregnancy, while often marked by joy, may pose considerable risk for depression among parents. Against a backdrop of adverse life events, expectant parents may be even more vulnerable to developing symptoms of depression during the prenatal period. Thus, it is critical to identify sources of resilience that might facilitate a successful transition to parenthood among couples who have a history of adversity. Prior work suggests that interpersonal and intrapersonal factors associated with resilience, such as intimate relationship satisfaction and self-compassion (i.e., self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness), have the potential to attenuate prenatal depression among couples with a history of stressful life experiences. We tested this possibility in a sample of 159 couples navigating pregnancy. As predicted, a greater number of prior stressful life experiences was associated with increased depression symptom severity for both mothers and fathers. However, moderation analyses revealed the positive link between cumulative stressful life experiences and depression symptom severity was attenuated among mothers who reported greater self-compassion in the form of feelings of common humanity, and fathers who reported higher levels of intimate relationship satisfaction and self-compassion in the form of mindfulness. Findings suggest enhancing intimate relationship satisfaction and self-compassion among expectant couples may be valuable in attenuating prenatal depression among those with a greater history of adversity.     

Toleration and prejudice-reduction: Two ways of improving intergroup relations

While a large body of social psychological research has shed light on the nature of prejudice and how to reduce it, we argue that such work does not address situations of cultural or religious outgroup beliefs and practices that are considered incompatible with one's own. The present theoretical article contrasts a prejudice-reduction approach with a toleration-based approach to consider the differences each have with regard to the attitude object they focus upon, the perceived reasonableness of the attitude, and the behavioral consequences each may lead to. In doing so, we consider the psychological processes involved in whether the negative attitude leads to negative actions. We conclude by arguing that a toleration-based approach forms an important addition to the psychological thinking about cultural diversity and intergroup relations. Collectively, the present work makes a novel contribution to the social psychological literature by stimulating theory development and raising novel questions for empirical research.