Synaesthesia: learned or lost?

The question why synaesthesia, an atypical binding within or between modalities, occurs is both enduring and important. Two explanations have been provided: (1) a congenital explanation: we are all born as synaesthetes but most of us subsequently lose the experience due to brain development; (2) a learning explanation: synaesthesia is related to some learning process during childhood. Three recent studies provide conflicting support for these explanations. Two studies supported the idea that synaesthesia is learned by showing that the frequency of everyday language implicitly modulates the synaesthetic experience. Another study argued that synaesthesia reflects basic, innate magnitude representations. In this paper we reassess these points of view, and show that it is possible for both to be valid. These findings are integrated into an interactive specialization account of development in order to explain the neuronal mechanism underlying synaesthesia.     

Subtyping and social consensus: the role of the audience in the maintenance of stereotypic beliefs

Two studies investigated the effect of stereotypes held by a prospective audience on participants' reactions to a stereotype‐disconfirming member. In Study 1, participants formed an impression of a positive disconfirming gay in order to communicate it to an audience known to hold a negative versus positive stereotype about gays. As predicted, participants subtyped the deviant more in the former than in the latter case. Moreover, participants' stereotype at the end of the study mirrored the audience's assumed stereotypes about gays. In Study 2, participants learned about a stereotype allegedly held by an ingroup or an outgroup audience about Belgians and then received information about a Belgian who disconfirmed the stereotype. As predicted, the deviant was seen as less typical when he violated the stereotype held by an ingroup than by an outgroup audience. Also, participants' stereotype about Belgians was more similar to the one held by the ingroup audience. A mediational analysis confirmed that participants subtyped the disconfirming member in order to embrace the stereotype advocated by the ingroup audience. Results are discussed in light of recent models of stereotype change. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Visual search is postponed during the attentional blink until the system is suitably reconfigured

J. S. Joseph, M. M. Chun, and K. Nakayama (1997) found that pop-out visual search was impaired as a function of intertarget lag in an attentional blink (AB) paradigm in which the 1st target was a letter and the 2nd target was a search display. In 4 experiments, the present authors tested the implication that search efficiency should be similarly impaired (steeper search slopes at shorter lags). A conventional AB deficit was found, but, contrary to expectations, search slopes were invariant with lag. These results suggest that no search can be carried out during the period of the AB. Instead, the search is postponed until after the 1st target has been processed. The authors conclude that efficient visual search cannot be carried out unless the visual system is configured appropriately for the search task. If the initial configuration is inappropriate, processing of the 2nd target is held in abeyance until the system has been suitably reconfigured.     

Rapid reacquisition of fear to a completely extinguished context is replaced by transient impairment with additional extinction training

A series of experiments studied reacquisition of fear reactions to a completely extinguished context. Reacquisition was rapid when reconditioning occurred as soon as the fear reactions were completely extinguished, showing that the original conditioning was intact. However, when reconditioning occurred after massive extinction training, fear reactions were depressed but then recovered across a long retention interval. This recovery was due to reconditioning and was similar to that produced by conditioning a massively preexposed context. These results show that massive extinction converts a potentially dangerous context into one that is merely familiar.     

Rearing in response to a visual conditioned stimulus: An index of associative strength or of associability?

Two procedures for observing rearing behavior during a localized visual CS paired with an appetitive US were compared within subjects during classical conditioning and extinction procedures. When rearing was observed using the method and response definition described by P. C. Holland (1977, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 3, 77–104), responding was acquired and maintained during conditioning trials in rats receiving paired presentations of the CS and US, but not in rats receiving the stimuli according to a “truly random” procedure. When rearing of the same rats was observed using the method and response definition described by H. Kaye and J. M. Pearce (1984, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 10, 90–109), responding declined across conditioning trials in both groups. Furthermore, in extinction, rearing during the CS declined according to Holland's scoring method but was temporarily restored according to Kaye and Pearce's scoring. Observations of a second behavior, magazine responding, revealed essentially the same pattern of responding for both methods of scoring. These results support the position that the response criteria used by Holland and by Kaye and Pearce assess different components of behavior that occur in response to a visual CS, reflecting associative strength (i.e., a CR) and associability of the CS (i.e., an OR), respectively.     

REJOINDER: WHITHER MARITAL THERAPY?

It is apparent that Gurman and Kniskern have greatly revised their original position in response to our critique. We believe that their revised position is more fully consonant with the available empirical evidence, although certain areas of disagreement between us are still evident. Overall, we believe that this dialogue has generated some promising lines for future research and clinical practice.