Grand Unified Theories of the Brain Need Better Understanding of Behavior: The Two-Tiered Emergence of Function

Abstract

Over the last few decades, neuroscience and various associated disciples have expanded enormously in terms of output, tools, methods, concepts, and large-scale projects. In spite of these developments, the principles underlying brain function and behavior are yet only partially understood. We claim that brain functioning requires the elucidation of the rules associated with all possible task realizations, rather than targeting the activity underlying a specific realization. A first step in that direction was taken by approaches focusing on dynamical structures underlying task performances, as exemplified by coordination dynamics. Its theoretical foundation owes much to Haken’s synergetics, which provides a formalism through which the degrees of freedom associated with high-dimensional systems may be effectively reduced to one or a few functional variables in the vicinity of phase transitions. The recent theoretical development of structured flows on manifolds (SFM) allows the employment to a potentially broader range of applications. Here we expand the SFM framework and propose that the emergent two-tiered fast–slow dynamics may be a basic mathematical organization underlying the architecture of brain and behavior dynamics. Finally, along a few examples, we illustrate how this framework allows for the incorporation of notions cardinal to ecological psychology.     

Multiple anchoring of category rating scales

A psychophysical experiment compared the effects of two different kinds of anchoring upon category ratings of the sizes of squares: (1) single anchoring in which the same square was presented on every anchoring trial, and (2) multiple anchoring in which squares of different sizes were presented on anchoring trials. Subjects did not rate the anchors, only those squares presented on alternate trials as the series stimuli. The major finding was that the two kinds of anchoring have similar effects. As with the single anchor, the multiple anchor establishes a new endpoint for the scale of judgment. The previously demonstrated relationship of increasing and then decreasing contrast as a function of the remoteness of the single anchor (Sarris, 1967, 1976) was found also for multiple anchoring.     

Paradoxes of “creativity”: Examining the creative process through an antenarrative lens

Accounts of the creative process tend to be retrospective and implicitly ground the creative act within the person, the mind, the moment, the idea; in doing so, they often miss the larger sociomaterial qualities that can provide us with important insights about the social relationality and playfulness of the creative process. In this article, we examine the creative process through an antenarrative lens that we consider very useful for theorizing the creative process from a cultural and sociomaterial perspective. More specifically, we argue that ‘having an idea’ is a contextualized and embodied process that can be regarded as an antenarrative of the overall creative process. We also discuss how the paradoxical relation between the formative and sudden manifestations of the creative act can be understood through the notion of play.     

Motor prediction at the edge of instability: alteration of grip force control during changes in bimanual coordination

Predicting the consequences of actions is fundamental for skilled motor behavior. We investigated whether motor prediction is influenced by the fact that some movements are easier to perform and stabilize than others. Twelve subjects performed a bimanual rhythmical task either symmetrically or asymmetrically (the latter being more difficult and less stable) while oscillating in each hand an object attached to an elastic cord. Motor prediction was monitored through the adequacy of anticipatory grip force adjustments with respect to the elastic resisting force. Results showed less adequate predictive control during asymmetrical movements (compared with symmetrical ones). Furthermore, switching between modes of coordination induced even larger alterations. An interesting finding was that grip force control did not always stabilize around the expected value after voluntary transition. We conclude that motor prediction is affected by the degree of coordination between the upper limbs and by phase transitions and is prone to carryover effects.     

Interference effects in bimanual coordination are independent of movement type

Simultaneously executed limb movements interfere with each other. Whereas the interference between discrete movements is examined mostly from a cognitive perspective, that between rhythmic movements is studied mainly from a dynamical systems perspective. As the tools and concepts developed by both communities are limited in their applicability to the other domain, it remains unclear if a common cause underlies motor interference in both domains. We investigated the interference between simultaneously executed discrete and rhythmic wrist movements. The discrete movements' reaction time and movement time decreased with increasing rhythmic movement frequency. The discrete movements accelerated or decelerated the rhythmic movements in a manner that depended on movement frequency and the discrete movement's initiation phase. The acceleration/deceleration profile was bimodal at low frequencies and unimodal at high frequencies, mimicking the hallmark feature of rhythmic-rhythmic coordination, thus suggesting that interference between movements may be invariant across different movement types.     

Internet Versus Group Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Distress Associated With Tinnitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Tinnitus distress can be reduced by means of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT), and the treatment can be delivered in different ways. The most recent format is Internet-based self-help. The aim of this study was to compare this treatment (n = 26) with standard group-based CBT (n = 25) in a randomized controlled trial. Outcomes on self-report inventories measuring tinnitus distress were evaluated immediately after and 1 year after treatment. Results showed that both groups had improved, and there were few differences between them. The effect size for the Internet treatment was d = 0.73 (95% CI = 0.16–1.30) and for the group treatment was d = 0.64 (95% CI = 0.07–1.21). The Internet treatment consumed less therapist time and was 1.7 times as cost-effective as the group treatment. At pretreatment patients rated the Internet treatment as less credible than the group treatment. In conclusion, Internet treatment for tinnitus distress merits further investigation, as the outcomes achieved are promising.     

Effectiveness of Two Cognitive Interventions Promoting Happiness with Video-Based Online Instructions

A 3-month experimental online study examined the short-term and 1 month follow-up effects of regularly practicing one of two cognitive interventions on subjective well-being. Participants were 435 self-selected adults (366 female, 69 male, aged 18–63) randomly assigned to one of three conditions: writing about best possible selves in the future (n = 135), making gratitude lists (n = 150) or writing to-do-lists as a control condition (n = 150). The study was fully self-administered and exercise instructions were given in online videos. Repeated-measures MANOVA revealed that both interventions significantly increased subjective well-being in comparison to the control condition. Effect sizes for the different components of subjective well-being ranged from r = .09–.13 (η² = .01–.02) for the 2 months intervention period. These effects were maintained until the 1-month follow-up. Enjoyment and interest regarding the exercise as indicators of perceived person-intervention-fit moderated the effect; participants of the happiness interventions who perceived a better fit showed greater increases in subjective well-being. These findings confirm previous research on these interventions and encourage further studies on online interventions, especially regarding possibilities to increase participants’ motivation and reduce dropout attrition.     

Sex, lies, and strategic interference: the psychology of deception between the sexes

The desires of one sex can lead to deceptive exploitation by the other sex. Strategic Interference Theory proposes that certain "negative" emotions evolved or have been co-opted by selection, in part, to defend against deception and reduce its negative consequences. In Study 1 (N = 217) Americans reported emotional distress in response to specific forms of deception. Study 2 (N = 200) replicated the results in a German sample. Study 3 (N = 479) assessed Americans' past experiences with deception and conducted additional hypothesis tests using a procedure to control for overall sex differences in upset. Each study supported the hypothesis that emotions track sex-linked forms of strategic interference. Three clusters of sex differences proved robust across studies-emotional upset about resource deception, commitment deception, and sexual deception. We discuss implications for theories of mating and emotion and directions for research based on models of antagonistic coevolution between the sexes.