Dissociation of visual localization and visual detection in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

Conscious and unconscious cognitive processes contribute independently to human behavior and can be dissociated. For example, humans report failing to see objects clearly in the periphery while simultaneously being able to grasp those objects accurately (Milner in Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279:2289–2298, 2012). Knowing whether similar dissociations are present in nonverbal species is critical to our understanding of comparative psychology and the evolution of brains. However, such dissociations are difficult to detect in nonhumans because verbal reports of experience are the main way we discriminate putative conscious from unconscious processing. We trained monkeys in a localization task in which they responded to the location where a target appeared, and a matched detection task in which they reported the presence or absence of the same target. We used masking to manipulate the visibility of targets. Accuracy was high in both tasks when stimuli were unmasked and was attenuated by visual masking. At the strongest level of masking, performance in the detection task was at chance, while localization remained significantly above chance. Critically, errors in the detection task were predominantly misses, indicating that the monkeys’ behavior remained under stimulus control, but that the monkeys did not detect the target despite above-chance localization. While these results cannot establish the existence of phenomenal vision in monkeys, the dissociation of visually guided action from detection parallels the dissociation of conscious and unconscious vision seen in humans.     

Leveraging social media content to support engagement in positive interventions

A key challenge for positive psychology interventions is promoting sustained engagement to improve long-term outcomes. One way to increase engagement is to introduce variety to reduce hedonic adaptation. Here, we propose supplementing intervention prompts with items from a person’s social media archive to add variety. Through a one-week pilot study of six positive psychology activities via a Facebook application, we explore whether Facebook content is useful to keep people engaged in activities and what attributes of content make it most useful. A total of 260 participants used our application, and analysis of usage showed that displaying content is engaging. By looking at which content was marked as useful by participants, we find that useful content is in itself meaningful and engaging (photos, longer texts, and content about close friends). We also find that certain intervention activities are more engaging and better suited for making use of Facebook content than others.     

The Psychology of Inspiration

Inspiration is a concept of longstanding interest in diverse areas of academia, but it has only recently become the subject of rigorous scientific investigation. In this article, we review the emerging scientific literature on inspiration, with a focus on both theory and findings. First, we present a general definition of inspiration based on an integrative literature review, and we outline approaches to differentiating the general inspiration construct into specific types. Second, we review the literature on construct validity. Third, we present substantive theory and findings, with an emphasis on the role of inspiration in promoting attainment of elusive goods, such as creativity, productivity, and happiness. Finally, we respond to frequent questions and misconceptions about inspiration, and we offer recommendations about how to promote inspiration in others or oneself.     

Divergence Behaviour of the Successive Geometric Mean Method of Pairwise Comparison Matrix Generation for a Multiple Stage,Multiple Objective Optimization Problem

This paper focuses on the divergence behaviour of the successive geometric mean (SGM) method used to generate pairwise comparison matrices while solving a multiple stage, multiple objective (MSMO) optimization problem. The SGM method can be used in the matrix generation phase of our three‐phase methodology to obtain pairwise comparison matrix at each stage of an MSMO optimization problem, which can be subsequently used to obtain the weight vector at the corresponding stage. The weight vectors across the stages can be used to convert an MSMO problem into a multiple stage, single objective (MSSO) problem, which can be solved using dynamic programming‐based approaches. To obtain a practical set of non‐dominated solutions (also referred to as Pareto optimal solutions) to the MSMO optimization problem, it is important to use a solution approach that has the potential to allow for a better exploration of the Pareto optimal solution space. To accomplish a more exhaustive exploration of the Pareto optimal solution space, the weight vectors that are used to scalarize the MSMO optimization problem into its corresponding MSSO optimization problem should vary across the stages. Distinct weight vectors across the stages are tied directly with distinct pairwise comparison matrices across the stages. A pairwise comparison matrix generation method is said to diverge if it can generate distinct pairwise comparison matrices across the stages of an MSMO optimization problem. In this paper, we demonstrate the SGM method's divergence behaviour when the three‐phase methodology is used in conjunction with an augmented high‐dimensional, continuous‐state stochastic dynamic programming method to solve a large‐scale MSMO optimization problem. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Characteristics and Effects of the Co-parenting Alliance between Incarcerated Parents and Child Caregivers

We examined co-parenting alliance based on information provided by 57 incarcerated parents and their corresponding child caregivers who took part in the Messages Project, in which incarcerated parents video recorded greetings to children that were then mailed home. We assessed perceptions of co-parenting alliance, measured by the Parenting Alliance Measure, and levels of child contact from both parents and caregivers. We also observed expressions of positive and negative attitudes that prisoners expressed regarding the home caregiver during the video recording. Incarcerated parents reported more frequent phone contact with children and more frequent letter-writing to children than did home caregivers. Incarcerated parents likewise reported higher levels of co-parenting alliance with the home caregiver in comparison to the assessment of co-parenting alliance reported by the home caregiver. Among children observing the video recorded message, a more positive co-parenting alliance between their parent and home caregiver was associated with increased positive mood. More frequent displays of negative attitudes toward caregivers during the recordings were associated with more negative mood indicators among children. Results suggest the importance of a strong co-parenting alliance between incarcerated parents and home caregivers, but imply that incarcerated parents may have a more optimistic view of their connection home than is the case for collaborating caregivers.     

Aging and the use of interword spaces during reading: Evidence from eye movements

In an eye movement experiment, we assessed the performance of young (18–30 years) and older (65 + years) adult readers when sentences contained conventional interword spaces, when interword spaces were removed, or when interword spaces were replaced by nonlinguistic symbols. The replacement symbol was either a closed square (■) that provided a salient (low-spatial-frequency) cue to word boundaries, or an open square (□) that provided a less salient cue and included features (vertical and horizontal lines) similar to those found in letters. Removing or replacing interword spaces slowed reading times and impaired normal eye movement behavior for both age groups. However, this disruption was greater for the older readers, particularly when the replacement symbol did not provide a salient cue as to word boundaries. Specific influences of this manipulation on word identification during reading were assessed by examining eye movements for a high- or low-frequency target word in each sentence. Standard word frequency effects were obtained for both age groups when text was spaced normally, and although the word frequency effect was larger when spaces were removed or filled, the increases were similar across age groups. Therefore, whereas older adults’ normal eye movements were substantially disrupted when text lacked conventional interword spaces, the process of lexical access associated with the word frequency effect was no more difficult for older than for young adults. The indication, therefore, is that although older adults struggle from the loss of conventional cues to word boundaries, this is not due to additional difficulties in word recognition.     

Development and Validation of an Explicit Aggressive Beliefs and Attitudes Scale

This work outlines the development and validation of a new self-report measure that assesses explicit aggressive beliefs and attitudes within the normal adult population (using 7 samples, total N = 3,533). These explicit aggressive beliefs and attitudes are expected to reflect aggressive biases including hostile attribution, potency, retribution, victimization by powerful others, derogation of target, and social discounting. The resulting scale is reliable with a hierarchical 6-factor structure, and displays convergent and discriminant validity. Criterion-related validity studies indicate incremental effects over socially desirable response bias, related implicit and explicit aggression measures, and is predictive of self-reported and other-reported aggression-related behaviors.     

Social Identification and Well-Being Following a Terrorist Attack: A Longitudinal Study of Israeli Adolescents

The authors examined the role of familial and national social identification in shaping the well-being (positive self-esteem [PSE] and satisfaction with life [SL]) among Israeli adolescents following a terrorist attack. Adolescents living in an attacked town (n = 259; M age = 16.19 years, SD = 0.74 years) and adolescents living in a not attacked town (n = 281; M age = 16.14 years, SD = 0.69 years) were studied longitudinally at 3 weeks and 1 year after the attack. Family identification promoted SL concurrently and PSE concurrently and longitudinally in both groups. Israeli identification hindered subsequent PSE and SL among trauma exposure group adolescents. The authors apply the findings to explain the protective and detrimental potential of social identification following traumatic experiences.     

Predicting Behavioral Career Commitment of College Students With Attachment and Separation Relationships

This study compares the behavioral and attitudinal career commitment of college students, then examines the influences of parental attachment and separation on career commitment. Undergraduates (N = 195) from 3 academic programs were surveyed: a combined degree program that accepts students simultaneously into bachelor's and medical programs, premedical curriculum alone, and general university enrollment. Behavioral career commitment (enrollment in one of the aforementioned programs) correlated with attitudinal commitment for the combined degree and general enrollment groups. Greater attachment to father and less separation from parents were associated with lower career commitment for men. Attachment and separation did not predict career commitment for women.     

Birth order differences in normal personality traits: Perspectives from within and outside the family

The hypotheses of Sulloway (1996) regarding birth order differences in five-factor model personality traits were tested in a sample of 231 college students with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Data were collected from three sources (self, peer, and parent) to systematically evaluate previous observations that birth order differences are more commonly found when ratings are obtained from family members than from observers outside the family (Ernst & Angst, 1983). Using a between-family design, students were selected only from families with two or three full biological siblings and no half-siblings, step-siblings, or adopted siblings. Firstborn (n = 103) and laterborn (n = 128) students were compared using NEO-FFI ratings by the self, by a same-sex college peer, and by a biological parent. No birth order differences were found for any of the five NEO-FFI scores using any of the three rating sources. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were less than .20 for all comparisons. Suggestions for new approaches to the study of birth order differences are considered, including the use of within-family designs and more contextualized personality variables.