Mental model construction in linear reasoning: Evidence for the construction of initial annotated models

According to the mental model theory, reasoners build an initial model representing the information given in the premises. In the context of relational reasoning, the question arises as to which kind of representation is used to cope with indeterminate or multimodel problems. The present article presents an array of possible answers arising from the initial construction of complete explicit models, partial explicit models, partial implicit models, a single "isomeric" model, or a single annotated model. Predictions generated from these views are tested in two experiments that vary the problem structure and the number of models consistent with the premises. Analyses of the premise processing times, answering times and accuracy show that the annotated model yields the best fit of the data. Implications of these findings for the mental model theory as developed for relational reasoning are discussed.     

ERP evidence for conceptual mappings and comparison processes during the comprehension of conventional and novel metaphors

Cognitive linguists suggest that understanding metaphors requires activation of conceptual mappings between the involved concepts. We tested whether mappings are indeed in use during metaphor comprehension, and what mapping means as a cognitive process with Event-Related Potentials. Participants read literal, conventional metaphorical, novel metaphorical, and anomalous target sentences preceded by primes with related or unrelated mappings. Experiment 1 used sentence-primes to activate related mappings, and Experiment 2 used simile-primes to induce comparison thinking. In the unprimed conditions of both experiments, metaphors elicited N400s more negative than the literals. In Experiment 1, related sentence-primes reduced the metaphor-literal N400 difference in conventional, but not in novel metaphors. In Experiment 2, related simile-primes reduced the metaphor-literal N400 difference in novel, but not clearly in conventional metaphors. We suggest that mapping as a process occurs in metaphors, and the ways in which it can be facilitated by comparison differ between conventional and novel metaphors.     

From research to practice: The first tentative steps

This article traces the history of the Somerset Spirituality Project as it moved from the research findings of Foskett et al. (2003) and Macmin and Foskett (2003) to the application of their findings in practice. It summarizes the results of the research, the attempts to publicize these and to promote better practice within the mental health services and local religious groups. It records the developments already undertaken or planned, the resistance to these encountered along the way and the sacrifices made by those most intimately involved. This is set within a Christian Liberation Theology's analysis of social and political systems, its bias to the poor and their understanding of the human drive to health of mind and soul.     

Structural and socio-psychological influences on adolescents’ educational aspirations and subsequent academic achievement

Previous literature indicates that educational aspirations are an important predictor of achievement at school and beyond. This paper examines the factors that are associated with high educational aspirations. It also looks at the relationship between aspirations and achievement at the General Certificate of Secondary Education in a deprived area of London. The results show that educational aspirations are associated with individual characteristics. Girls were more likely than boys to express a wish to remain in education beyond the age of 16. For the most academic route post-16, there were substantial ethnic differences, with minority ethnic groups generally being more likely to state a desire to follow this path. Students who were eligible for free school meals tended to have lower aspirations. Socio-psychological variables were also shown to be of importance, particularly self-esteem and psychological distress. Importantly, educational aspirations had a strong association with actual achievement at age 16, remaining associated even after controlling for a number of other variables, including prior achievement. These findings are discussed in light of previous research and potential intervention strategies.     

Group cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety in a clinic setting: does child involvement predict outcome?

The current study examined the relationship between child involvement and treatment outcome in a group cognitive–behavioral treatment (GCBT) program for children with anxiety, using an adapted version of the Child Involvement Rating Scale (CIRS). Thirty-four children with a primary diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, referred for outpatient treatment at a hospital, and their parents participated in a manualized 12-session GCBT program. The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC), administered at pretreatment, posttreatment, and at 4-month follow-up, served as the outcome measure. The psychometric properties of the adapted CIRS were good. Early involvement (EI) was calculated as the average score from Sessions 1 to 6 and late involvement (LI), the average score from Sessions 7 to 12. EI predicted lower MASC scores at posttreatment, after controlling for pretreatment MASC scores and for LI, B = – 1.05, t(3) = – 2.34, p < .05. EI did not predict outcomes at follow-up. Results were replicated using the original CIRS measure. Exploratory analyses suggested that the relationship between LI and treatment outcomes was moderated by medication. Involvement in therapy prior to exposures might be an important predictor of posttreatment outcomes in GCBT in a community setting.     

Locus of control and achievement in child psychiatric inpatients

The relationship between the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973) and academic achievement was examined in a sample of 66 child psychiatric inpatients. Previous studies had suggested that this measure correlated with achievement in normal samples (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973) but not in populations of male juvenile offenders (Little & Kendall, 1978). The product-moment correlation between the Nowicki-Strickland Scale and the Peabody Individual Achievement Test was significant. However, when the effect of IQ was controlled for in a partial correlation, there was no significant correlation. Discussion focuses on the relationship between these results and other findings in the area of locus of control, intelligence, and achievement.     

What makes depressed people feel worse?

Fifty English-speaking adults were asked in a brief open-ended interview, ‘When you're feeling depressed, what sorts of things can make you feel worse?’ Their responses were subjected to content analysis and frequency counts. The most frequent replies were: being alone (mentioned by 24% of Ss), inactivity (20%) and thinking about the problem that was getting them down (18%). The results are discussed from phenomenological, theoretical, historical, methodological and clinical points of view.     

Family demographics of clinically referred children: What we know and what we need to know

Published empirical studies were reviewed to establish family demographics of clinically referred children and adolescents. Data on parental marital status were collected from studies of referred and nonreferred children and adolescents in six empirical journals. Data on family socioeconomic status (SES) and child race or ethnicity were also collected. Based on 86 studies that presented parental marital status, 56.4% of clinically referred children and adolescents live with both their biological mother and biological father. Family SES data were difficult to summarize because of the different methods of presenting this information. When considering race and ethnicity, 86% of the children and adolescents in the clinical samples were Caucasian American. Of the studies that were originally reviewed, 80.4% did not include parental marital status and 36. 7% did not include SES, race, or ethnicity of the participants. There were no significant differences between journals in the rates of inclusion of family demographic data. In addition to revealing family demographic information about children and adolescents who participate in clinical research, these data highlight the lack of consistency in the presentation of family demographic data in published research. Suggestions are provided to help researchers colled and present meaningful family demographic data in clinical and nonclinical research with children and adolescents.This study was completed with support from the Division of Sponsored Research at the University of South Florida and preparation of this article was supported in part by National Institute of Mental Health Grant R29 49601-02 to the first author. We express our gratitude to Georgetta Bosco and Tracy Burbine for their diligent data collection in the library.