Reliability and standardization in the assessment of self-reported headache pain

The efficacy of a treatment intervention for head pain is typically evaluated by self-reported data. Self-monitoring schedules used to collect these data vary extensively across studies. The present article reviews conceptual and methodological problems with these self-report inventories. In addition, the most promising procedure was implemented in a study designed to measure the reliability of self-reported headache pain levels. One-hundred twenty-four college students self-monitored headache pain over an 8-week period. Three objective procedures were used to detect inaccurate recording. Subjects were also asked, in a post-experimental questionnaire, to subjectively rate the degree to which they complied with the experimenters' instructions regarding the self-monitoring procedures. Forty percent of the subjects were found to be noncompliant based on the detection techniques. However, responses to the postexperimental questionnaire indicated this to be a conservative estimation of noncompliance. There was no consistent difference between the postexperimental questionnaire for the subjects detected and those not detected. Results are discussed with relation to the need for researchers to adopt a standard methodology for (1) measuring self-reported headache pain and (2) reporting reliability data.Portions of these data were presented at the meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago, November 1978.     

A study of male and female soldiers' beliefs about the “appropriateness” of various jobs for women in the army

The purpose of this paper is to document the often discussed (e.g., Goldman, 1973) and recently initiated expansion of women's role in the U.S. Army and to present evidence regarding one aspect of soldiers' probable reaction to this expansion — viz., the extent to which soldiers believe certain military jobs are appropriate for women and, in particular, the extent to which these beliefs are related to respondent sex, rank, and expectation of leaving the Army before retirement.     

Evaluating the efficacy of pictorial preference assessments with children who engage in food selectivity

Preference assessments are used in practice with individuals who engage in food refusal and selectivity to identify foods that a child will readily consume before assessment and treatment. Traditional edible preference assessments may be challenging for children who engage in food refusal or selectivity as the child may not consume foods, but rather engage in inappropriate mealtime behavior simply due to the presence of food. Alternative modality preference assessments, such as pictorial, may offer benefits compared to traditional preference assessment formats (e.g., stimulus preference assessment and paired-stimulus preference assessment). The use of pictures may reduce any evocative effects of the presence of food and result in choice-making without inappropriate mealtime behavior. Experiment 1 assessed the correspondence between the hierarchies yielded from pictorial preference assessments (with and without access) to a standard edible preference assessment. Experiment 2 evaluated the accuracy of each preference assessment by presenting foods identified as preferred and non-preferred to determine if the child would accept them. Results suggested that pictorial preference assessments with access corresponded the most with the traditional edible preference assessment. Also, for one individual, the traditional preference assessment did not accurately identify foods that the participant would consume, while the pictorial preference assessment without access yielded a hierarchy.     

Effects on Future Learning of Presenting Non-Target Stimuli in Antecedent and Consequent Conditions

This investigation assessed the effects of presenting non-target stimuli in the antecedent and consequent events on the future learning of responses to those stimuli. A 4-s constant time delay procedure was implemented to teach students with mild to moderate disabilities to read sight words. Future target stimuli (i.e., stimuli that were presented during instructional sessions of initial target stimuli, but were not directly instructed or targeted) were presented in one of two conditions; (a) in the antecedent event, or (b) in the consequent event portion of each instructional trial. Future target stimuli consisted of sight words that were unrelated to the target stimuli. An adapted alternating treatments design was used to assess and compare the two instructional conditions. Also, after students achieved criterion for reading target sight words, constant time delay was implemented to teach the future target stimuli. The number of sessions and the number and percentage of errors through criterion for teaching target and future target stimuli were assessed to measure the efficiency of the two conditions. All students reached criterion on the target stimuli and then acquired the future target stimuli when taught. Students required fewer sessions to achieve criterion on future target stimuli compared to initial target stimuli. There were minimal differences between the two conditions (i.e., antecedent versus consequent).     

The role of visuo-spatial abilities in environment learning from maps and navigation over the adult lifespan

Visuo-spatial abilities have an important role in environment learning. The aim of the present study was to explore whether these abilities relate to spatial recall after learning an environment from a map or a video, and irrespective of the learner's age (from youth to old age). The study involved 431 participants from 25 to 84 years old, who were assessed for their visuo-spatial working memory, object-based mental rotation, and perspective-taking abilities. Then, they learned environments from a map and a video, and performed pointing, map drawing, and route repetition tasks after learning from each type of input. The resulting path models showed that age related to visuo-spatial abilities and (in some cases) to spatial accuracy, too. After accounting for age, visuo-spatial abilities also related to spatial recall performance, whatever the type of learning input, especially in pointing tasks and, to a lesser degree, in map drawing and route repetition tasks. Overall, the relationship between individual visuo-spatial abilities and environment learning relates to the learning input and the type of task used to assess recall. This relationship was found in a large and diverse sample of participants ranging from youth to old age.     

Optimizing assurance: the risk regulation system in relationships

A model of risk regulation is proposed to explain how people balance the goal of seeking closeness to a romantic partner against the opposing goal of minimizing the likelihood and pain of rejection. The central premise is that confidence in a partner's positive regard and caring allows people to risk seeking dependence and connectedness. The risk regulation system consists of 3 interconnected "if--then" contingency rules, 1 cognitive, 1 affective, and 1 behavioral. The authors describe how general perceptions of a partner's regard structure the sensitivity of these 3 "if--then" rules in risky relationship situations. The authors then describe the consequences of such situated "if--then" rules for relationship well-being and conclude by integrating other theoretical perspectives and outlining future research directions.     

Psychosocial vulnerability from adolescence to adulthood: a prospective study of attachment style differences in relationship functioning and partner choice

Using a prospective research design, this study explored whether attachment style during adolescence forecasts the nature and quality of romantic relationships in early adulthood and investigated two general pathways for explaining these effects. Black and White community residents were first interviewed in adolescence at which time they completed a self-report measure of attachment style. Approximately 6 years later, they participated in a follow-up interview along with their current romantic partners (N = 224 couples). Results revealed that insecure attachment in adolescence was a risk factor for adverse relationship outcomes in adulthood, although the effects were most consistent for avoidant attachment. Avoidant adolescents were involved in relationships that they (and their partners) rated as less satisfying overall; they also engaged in fewer pro-relationship behaviors, and perceived that their partners engaged in fewer pro-relationship behaviors. In addition, avoidant adolescents were involved with partners who had less healthy personality profiles. Results for anxious-ambivalent and secure attachment were weaker, more complex, and moderated by gender. This study provides the first prospective evidence that avoidant attachment places individuals at risk for adverse relationship outcomes and highlights potential pathways through which this occurs.