Errors without conflict: implications for performance monitoring theories of anterior cingulate cortex

Recent theories of the neural basis of performance monitoring have emphasized a central role for the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Replicating an earlier event-related potential (ERP) study, which showed an error feedback negativity that was modeled as having an ACC generator, we used event-related fMRI to investigate whether the ACC would differentiate between correct and incorrect feedback stimuli in a time estimation task. The design controlled for response conflict and frequency and expectancy effects. Although participants in the current study adjusted their performance following error feedback, we did not observe error feedback-evoked ACC activity. In contrast, we did observe ACC activity while the same subjects performed the Stroop task, in which an area of the ACC activated during both conflict and error trials. These findings are inconsistent with previous dipole models of the error feedback negativity, and suggest the ACC may not be involved in the generation of this ERP component. These results question involvement of the ACC in the detection of errors per se when controlling for conflict.     

Thumbs up or thumbs down? Effects of neuroticism and depressive symptoms on psychophysiological responses to social evaluation in healthy students

The effects of neuroticism and depressive symptoms on psychophysiological responses in a social judgment task were examined in a sample of 101 healthy young adults. Participants performed a social judgment task in which they had to predict whether or not a virtual peer presented on a computer screen liked them. After the prediction, the actual judgment was shown, and behavioral, electrocortical, and cardiac responses to this judgment were measured. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) was largest after unexpected feedback. The largest P3 was found after the expected “like” judgments, and cardiac deceleration was largest following unexpected “do not like” judgments. Both the P3 and cardiac deceleration were affected by gender—that is, only males showed differential P3 responses to social judgments, and males showed stronger cardiac decelerations. Time–frequency analyses were performed to explore theta and delta oscillations. Theta oscillations were largest following unexpected outcomes and correlated with FRN amplitudes. Delta oscillations were largest following expected “like” judgments and correlated with P3 amplitudes. Self-reported trait neuroticism was significantly related to social evaluative predictions and cardiac reactivity to social feedback, but not to the electrocortical responses. That is, higher neuroticism scores were associated with a more negative prediction bias and with smaller cardiac responses to judgments for which a positive outcome was predicted. Depressive symptoms did not affect the behavioral and psychophysiological responses in this study. The results confirmed the differential sensitivities of various outcome measures to different psychological processes, but the found individual differences could only partly be ascribed to the collected subjective measures.     

A parental rearing style questionnaire for use with adolescents: Psychometric evaluation of the EMBU-A

The present study investigated whether the dimensional framework of the EMBU, a questionnaire assessing adults' retrospective perceptions of parental rearing styles, could be retrieved in an EMBU version that was adapted for adolescents, the EMBU-A. Based on a sample of 1153 healthy young adolescents (mean age 12.4 years), confirmatory factor analyses showed that the factors of Rejection, Emotional Warmth, Overprotection and Favouring Subject found in the new EMBU-A were closely related to the factors originally interpreted in adult ratings. Reliability and aspects of convergent and divergent validity of the new scale were encouraging. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Conflict and Cognitive Control in the Brain

ABSTRACT— Recent research from cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience has suggested that the control mechanisms by which people are able to regulate task performance can be dissociated into evaluative and executive components. One process, implemented in the anterior cingulate cortex of the brain, monitors the amount of conflict that occurs during information processing; another process, implemented in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, is involved with maintaining the requirements of the task at hand and with biasing information processing in favor of appropriate responses. In the current article, we review this theory and some of the research that has supported it, including its implication for understanding cognitive disturbances in clinical disorders such as schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. We conclude by addressing several interesting possibilities for future research.     

Anterior cingulate cortex and conflict detection: An update of theory and data

The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and associated regions of the medial frontal wall have often been hypothesized to play an important role in cognitive control. We have proposed that the ACC's specific role in cognitive control is to detect conflict between simultaneously active, competing representations and to engage the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to resolve such conflict. Here we review some of the evidence supporting this theory, from event-related potential (ERP) and fMRI studies. We focus on data obtained from interference tasks, such as the Stroop task, and review the evidence that trial-to-trial changes in control engagement can be understood as driven by conflict detection; the data suggest that levels of activation of the ACC and the DLPFC in such tasks do indeed reflect conflict and control, respectively. We also discuss some discrepant results in the literature that highlight the need for future research.     

Gaze as depicted in Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring

Ten observers viewed Vermeer's painting Girl With a Pearl Earring and estimated her direction of gaze when her eyes were exposed together and separately. The observers also viewed the painting when her eyes were digitally replaced by those of a real person. The authors found that Vermeer painted the girl's eyes with a precision that was near the limits of visual acuity. Also, Vermeer included 3 gaze illusions, none of which researchers have documented as known in Vermeer's time: (a) when a model whose head is turned to one side gazes at an observer, there is an illusion that she is looking to the side of the observer away from the direction of her head turn; (b) when a model's eyes are viewed separately, they appear to gaze outward relative to each other; and (c) when both of a model's eyes are viewed, the perceived direction of gaze follows that of the nearer eye.     

Women in Cultural Transition: Suicidal Behavior in South African Indian Women

Young South African Indian women are a population with relatively high rates of suicidal behavior. This article presents three illustrative case studies of nonfatal suicidal behavior by South African Indian women. The cases are discussed in relation to a review of epidemiological, historical, and sociocultural perspectives on South African Indian women. It is argued that suicidal behaviors in this group can be understood in the context of sociocultural transition. Transitional tensions between traditional Indian culture and Westernization have an impact on traditional gendered power relations and generate conflicts that have intrapsychic and interpersonal consequences for women and for men. These in turn may have adverse effects on marital functioning, quality of life, and specific aspects of emotional functioning, which have been identified as precursors of suicidal behavior. The case studies are discussed with reference to gender narratives. Implications for prevention, intervention, and future research are discussed.