Positive and Negative Hypothesis Testing by Cooperative Groups

In a rule induction problem positive hypothesis tests select evidence that the tester expects to be an example of the correct rule if the hypothesis is correct, whereas negative hypothesis tests select evidence that the tester expects to be a nonexample if the hypothesis is correct. Previous research indicates the general effectiveness of a positive test strategy for individuals, but there has been very little research with cooperative groups. We extend the analysis of Klayman and Ha (Psychological Review, 1987) of ambiguous verification or conclusive falsification of five possible types of hypotheses by positive and negative tests by emphasizing the importance of further examples following hypothesis tests. In two experiments four-person cooperative groups solved rule induction problems by proposing a hypothesis and selecting evidence to test the hypothesis on each of four arrays on each trial. In different conditions the groups were instructed to use different combinations of positive and negative tests on the four arrays. Positive tests were more likely to lead to further examples than negative tests, and the proportion of correct hypotheses corresponded to the proportion of positive tests, in both experiments. We suggest that positive tests are more effective than negative hypothesis tests in generating further evidence, and thus in inducing the correct rule, in experimental rule induction tasks with a criterion of certainty imposed by the researcher.     

Relationship Satisfaction: Impact and Consequences for Women's Emotional Health and Treatment

This study uses feminist theory to examine the variables of relationship length and relationship satisfaction as predicators of both self-esteem and emotional functioning for women. Using a national sample of data gathered from 1,257 female survey respondents this study found significant relationships between emotional functioning, self-esteem, and self-reported relationship satisfaction which was supported by regression testing and path analysis. In addition, a significant negative relationship was noted between a woman's self-esteem and her with-holding of verbalized displeasure or disagreement with her partner. Implications for women in therapy were discussed.     

EARLY CORTICAL INFLUENCES IN OBJECT SEGREGATION AND THE PERCEPTION OF SURFACE LIGHTNESS

Abstract— The apparent brightness of a surface is profoundly influenced by the brightness of an adjacent surface., but these contrast effects are reduced when the surface are perceived as separate three-dimensional entities. Previous work has suggested that high-level perceptual and cognitive processes involved in scence segmentation may be responsible for modifying a surface's appearance. We demonstrate large reductions in contrast effects when the sues available for segmentations are restricted to those that isolate separate groups of early cortical neurons in the visual system. Our data contradict standard contract-signaling models of brightness perception and imply that mechanisms of figure-ground segmentation are already available at low levels of visual processing.     

WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY DISSOCIATES LEXICAL AND SENTENTIAL CONTEXT EFFECTS

Abstract— Semantically associated and unassociated word pairs were embedded in normal meaningful sentences and in sentences that were semantically anomalous throughout The influence of lexical context was isolated via comparison of responses to the second words of the associated and unassociated pairs. The influence of sentence-level context was isolated by comparing responses to the same words in the two sentence types Subjects of high, medium and low working memory capacity (as evaluated by the reading span test) showed modulations of event-related brain potentials in response so lexical context. In contrast, only the high- and medium-capacity groups were responsive to purely sentence-level semantic context. The results demonstrate that sentential context influences the processing of words in intermediate sentence positions at normal reading speeds but that the on-line utilization of this context is more demanding of working memory than single-word contexts.     

TIME COURSE OF ACTIVATING BRAIN AREAS IN GENERATING VERBAL ASSOCIATIONS

Abstract— Generating a use far a visual word in comparison with reading the word aloud activates frontal attention areas first (170 MS), a left lateral frontal area next (250 ms), and then a left temporoparietal (Wernicke's) area (650 ms). A brief period of practice reduces these activations. If subjects are asked to respond to a word from the same practiced list by giving a novel use, the original activations reappear and are joined by activity similar in location and time to Wernicke's activation but in the right hemisphere. These findings demonstrate the time course of activations of neuroanatomical areas in word processing and indicate a role for the right hemisphere when semantic processing is more difficult, such as in generating a less frequent association in the presence of a highly practiced one.     

Changes in Newcomers' Person–Climate Fit following the First Stage of Socialization

The development of attitudes and activities of newcomers in the 18 months following the first period of socialization was investigated. At two points in time, persons' preferences for seven work climates were compared with perceived climate. Changes in person-climate fit were assessed, using a squared difference index, after alternative fit-indices were tested with hierarchical regression analysis. Person-climate fit and work attitudes at T1 (eight to ten months after entry) were examined by comparing three groups of respondents who did not change jobs, changed jobs within the organization or changed organizations. Results showed no alpha, beta or gamma changes for the total group of 108 respondents. Alpha changes were only found for respondents who changed jobs. They showed higher ratings for job satisfaction at T2. Finally, work attitudes at T1 were related to turnover. Organizational changers showed higher turnover intentions and higher discrepancies between preferred and perceived risk orientation and work pressure at T1.     

Family Functioning and Mental Illness: A Comparison of Psychiatric and Nonclinical Families

The primary objective of the present investigation was to examine adaptive functioning in the families of patients with a wide range of psychiatric disorders. Seven dimensions of family functioning, as measured by the Family Assessment Device (FAD), were compared across families of patients with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder (n = 61 ), bipolar disorder (n = 60 ), major depression (n = 111 ), anxiety disorder (n = 15 ), eating disorder (n = 26 ), substance abuse disorder (n = 48 ), and adjustment disorder (n = 46 ). Families in each psychiatric group were also compared to a control group of nonclinical families (N = 353 ). Results indicated that regardless of specific diagnosis, having a family member in an acute phase of a psychiatric illness was a risk factor for poor family functioning compared to the functioning of control families. However, with few exceptions, the type of the patient's psychiatric illness did not predict significant differences in family functioning. Thus, having a family member with a psychiatric illness is a general stressor for families, and family interventions should be considered for most patients who require a psychiatric hospitalization for either the onset of, or an acute exacerbation of, any psychiatric disorder.     

The Development of a Clinical Rating Scale the McMaster Model of Family Functioning

This article describes the development and validation of the McMaster Clinical Rating Scale (MCRS). The MCRS is a 7-item scale designed to be completed by a trained rater after completion of an in-depth interview of the family. We present data from four new studies and review previously published articles concerning the reliability, validity, and clinical utility of the MCRS. Adequate interrater reliability and rater stability were obtained. The MCRS was found to correlate significantly with the self-report Family Assessment Device and to discriminate between families in different phases of a depressive disorder.     

A Whiff of Reality: Empirical Evidence Concerning the Effects of Pleasant Fragrances on Work-Related Behavior1

Two studies were conducted to investigate the potential effects on workrelated behavior of one environmental variable: pleasant fragrances. In Study 1, participants performed a word construction task under low or high stress while in the presence or absence of pleasant fragrances. Performance was significantly enhanced by fragrance in both stress conditions. In addition, exposure to pleasant fragrances significantly increased performance on an additional task (decoding written messages) completed by participants following exposure to stress. In Study 2, both exposure to pleasant fragrances and receipt of a small gift increased performance on the same word construction task used in Study 1. In addition, fragrance and a gift increased participants' willingness to engage in both immediate and delayed helping. Together, the results of these studies offer support for the view that pleasant fragrances can influence work-related behavior, and that such effects may be mediated, at least in part, by increments in positive affect.