Moderation in Management Research: What,Why, When,and How

Many theories in management, psychology, and other disciplines rely on moderating variables: those which affect the strength or nature of the relationship between two other variables. Despite the near-ubiquitous nature of such effects, the methods for testing and interpreting them are not always well understood. This article introduces the concept of moderation and describes how moderator effects are tested and interpreted for a series of model types, beginning with straightforward two-way interactions with Normal outcomes, moving to three-way and curvilinear interactions, and then to models with non-Normal outcomes including binary logistic regression and Poisson regression. In particular, methods of interpreting and probing these latter model types, such as simple slope analysis and slope difference tests, are described. It then gives answers to twelve frequently asked questions about testing and interpreting moderator effects.     

Moving Forward: The Existential Motion of the Self in Kierkegaard's Pseudonymous Works

Each of Kierkegaard's pseudonymous authors address the question of the existing individual and what it truly means to be a self. This article discusses the existing individual as depicted by the pseudonymous authors, focusing on motion, activity, and repetition. In particular, this article seeks to pinpoint the motion and activity of the self through Kierkegaard's notion of repetition, contending that repetition is a decisive action brought forward discontinuously through a breach in time's succession. I address the self's movement forward in four sections. In the first I introduce the overarching distinction between the motion of existing individuals and empirical objects, distinguishing the character of my investigation. After clarifying this distinction, the second section focuses on Anti-Climacus’ conception of the self as activity (a positing of the synthesis), revealing that for an existing individual the self is not given but a task to be actualized. The final section first details the positing of the synthesis as repetition and second contends that, through repetition, the inner workings of the self reveal its activity as a discontinuous breach in time that occurs by virtue of the eternal.     

Comparison of blocking strategies informed by precursor assessment to decrease pica

Pica is dangerous behavior and often maintained by automatic reinforcement. We conducted a latency functional analysis (FA) using safe consumption items to verify that pica was maintained in part by automatic reinforcement and exclude participants for whom pica was likely maintained solely by attention. Next, we identified precursors to pica through a probability analysis and conducted a brief blocking assessment for participants' whose pica occurred in the alone and attention conditions of the FA. Finally, we compared blocking precursors with pica, touching an inedible item and the pica itself. Results showed that five of the six participants' pica was likely maintained by automatic reinforcement, and pica decreased during the brief blocking assessment for three of four participants. Results of the blocking comparison showed that blocking behaviors earlier in the response hierarchy was as effective as only blocking pica attempts for two participants and more effective for one participant.     

Work engagement interventions can be effective: a systematic review

Work engagement is associated with important individual and organisational outcomes (e.g. employee health and well-being, performance). This narrative systematic review aims to synthesise the increasing number of work engagement interventions and inform future research by exploring: (1) the specific intervention foci, delivery methods and content of engagement interventions; (2) intervention effectiveness; and (3) underlying mediators and moderators. A systematic search for interventions employing a validated engagement measure revealed 40 studies. Five were personal resource building, twelve job resource building, three leadership training, eighteen health promotion, and two job and personal resource building. Twenty (50%) studies observed significant positive effects on work engagement, two (5%) had a negative effect, and eighteen (45%) had no effect. Job and personal resources, job demands and well-being were important mediators. Moderators included the specific intervention focus and delivery method, employee participation, manager support, and intervention level (top-down vs bottom-up). Bottom-up interventions, and job crafting and mindfulness interventions particularly, were most successful. Implementation difficulties were common, including poor response and attrition rates, and adverse factors (e.g. organisational restructuring, redundancy, economic downturn). We highlight implications for research and practice and stress the need to test underlying theories to build knowledge around how, why, and when interventions work.     

Pavlovian processes in the motivational control of instrumental performance

Hungry rats were rewarded for pressing a lever on a multiple schedule. During one component the reward was a sucrose solution, whereas food pellets acted as the reward during another component. Lever pressing was never rewarded during the third component. When the drive state was switched from hunger to thirst and the animals tested in extinction, they pressed more in the presence of the component stimulus that had been associated with the sucrose reward during training. A similar effect was observed during the extinction test of a second study in which the component stimuli had signalled non-contingent presentations of either the sucrose or pellet rewards in the absence of the lever. This suggests that the instrumental irrelevant incentive effect observed in the first experiment was due, at least in part, to the Pavlovian relationship between the component stimuli and the reinforcers during training. In fact, when the size of the effects controlled by purely Pavlovian and supposedly instrumental contingencies was compared directly in the final study, no difference could be detected.     

How Do Artificial Neural Networks Classify Musical Triads? A Case Study in Eluding Bonini's Paradox

How might artificial neural networks (ANNs) inform cognitive science? Often cognitive scientists use ANNs but do not examine their internal structures. In this paper, we use ANNs to explore how cognition might represent musical properties. We train ANNs to classify musical chords, and we interpret network structure to determine what representations ANNs discover and use. We find connection weights between input units and hidden units can be described using Fourier phase spaces, a representation studied in musical set theory. We find the total signal coming through these weighted connection weights is a measure of the similarity between two Fourier structures: the structure of the hidden unit's weights and the structure of the stimulus. This is surprising because neither of these Fourier structures is computed by the hidden unit. We then show how output units use such similarity measures to classify chords. However, we also find different types of units—units that use different activation functions—use this similarity measure very differently. This result, combined with other findings, indicates that while our networks are related to the Fourier analysis of musical sets, they do not perform Fourier analyses of the kind usually described in musical set theory. Our results show Fourier representations of music are not limited to musical set theory. Our results also suggest how cognitive psychologists might explore Fourier representations in musical cognition. Critically, such theoretical and empirical implications require researchers to understand how network structure converts stimuli into responses.     

Limitations of a Bidirectional Control Procedure for the Investigation of Imitation in Rats: Odour Cues on the Manipulandum

Magazine-trained observer rats confronted a conspecific demonstrator pushing a joystick to the right or to the left for food reward before the observers were given access to the joystick from the position previously occupied by the demonstrator and rewarded for responses in both directions. For half of the observers (group 0), the joystick was in the same position when acted upon by demonstrators and observers; for the other half (group 180) the manipulandum was rotated 180 within its mounting between observation and test. As in previous experiments using this bidirectional control procedure, rats in group 0 showed demonstratorconsistent responding-that is, they pushed the joystick in the same direction, relative to the actor's body, as had their demonstrators. However, group 180 showed a reverse effect: reliable demonstrator-inconsistent responding. These results suggest that attractive odour or taste cues deposited by demonstrators on the side of the joystick contralateral to the direction of responding are sufficient to produce demonstrator-consistent responding in the bidirectional control procedure.     

Discussion on the foundation of mathematics

This article provides an English translation of a historic discussion on the foundations of mathematics, during which Kurt GÖdel first announced his (first) incompleteness theorem to the mathematical world. The text of the discussion is preceded by brief background remarks and commentary.