Unconscious processing of color and form in metacontrast masking

Three experiments employed a metacontrast masking procedure to examine the extent and nature of priming effects from visual stimuli not consciously perceived. The results showed effects of unconscious stimuli on subsequent target responses that (1) were more consistent, reliable, and not subject to strategic control, as compared with consciously perceived stimuli (Experiment 1); (2) produced both facilitation and interference of subsequent processing (Experiment 2); and (3) did not influence indirect response-related levels of processing (Experiment 3). These results demonstrate that color and form attributes of unconscious stimuli are sufficiently registered within the visual system to influence behavior, and that some of these unconscious effects occur at early levels of stimulus encoding, prior to higher level perceptual and response-related processes.     

Meta-analyses and systematic reviews of psychological treatments for chronic pain: relevance to an evidence-based practice.

As evidence-based practitioners become more reliant on systematic reviews to inform treatment, it becomes important to systematize reporting details as well as improve the quality of the primary studies that will later be incorporated into this secondary literature. In this article, the authors consider several specific factors that can serve this function in the area of chronic pain: (a) adhering to a standardized set of reporting standards; (b) measuring a standardized set of short- and long-term outcome variables; (c) providing information about individual differences; and (d) providing detailed, easily accessible documentation of the treatment program (or progams). The article also highlights ways that practitioners and researchers can collaborate on treatment outcome research, thereby improving the ability to discover and disseminate effective treatments for patients who suffer from chronic pain.     

Book reviews

DIAMOND, S. J. The Social Behaviour of Animals. London: Baqtsford. 1970. Pp. 256. £2.50.

JARRARD, L. E. (Ed.). Cognitive Processes in Non-human Primates. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 188.

BROZEK, J. and SLOBIN, D. I. (Eds). Psychology in the USSER: An Historical Perspective. New York: International Arts and Sciences Press. 1972. Pp. x + 30.1. $ 15.00.

A. R. JENSEN. Genetics and Education. London: Methuen. 1972. Pp. Vii + 379. £ 3.50.

OATLEY, K. Brain Mechanisms and Mind. London: Thames and Husdson. 1972. Pp. 216. £2.25.

BOAKES, R. A. and HALLIDAY, M. S., (Eds). Inhibition and Learning. London: Academic Press 1972. Pp. 568. £7.25.

TOBACH, E., ARONSON, L. R. and SHAW, E. (Eds). The Biopsychology of Development. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp.xix + 593. dollar 22.50.

MOLTZ, H. (Ed.). The Ontogeny of Vertebrate Behavior. New York and London: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 500. $ 22.50.

SOKOLOV, A. N. Inner Speech and Thought. London: Plenum Publishment Co. 1972. Pp. 283. £ 10.50

SHOUKSMITH, G. Intelligence, Creativity and Cognivity and Cognitive Style. LOndon: Batsford. 1970.Pp. 240. £ 2.30,

BOLTON, N. The psychology of Thinking. Lond Methuuen. 1972. Pp. 291. £3.20.

JOHNSON, D. M. Systematic Introduction to The Psychology of Thinking. New York: Harper and Row, 1972. Pp. 498. £ 5.10.

LLOYD, B. Preception and Cognition. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 1972. Pp. 190. £ 0.80.     

GENERALIZATION EFFECTS FROM INTRATHERAPY ARTICULATION TRAINING: A CASE STUDY1

This study analyzed generalization effects found associated with a language-training intervention to modify the articulation (/f/ phoneme) of a 3.5-year-old boy. The McLean and Raymore Stimulus Shift Articulation Program was implemented by the subject's mother. This language training program is designed to produce setting generalization effects based on an intratherapy training model (i.e., systematic training is applied in a single setting to promote transfer effects to nontraining environments). The intervention resulted in a significant improvement in the subject's production of the /f/ phoneme within the clinical setting in response to untrained stimuli (stimulus generalization). Additionally, the subject's correct phoneme production was observed to generalize to his home and school settings (setting generalization) under “opportunity loaded” (picture prompts) and “spontaneous” (no prompts) conditions. The results provide case-study evidence that stimulus generalization, both within and across settings, may occur with exclusively intratherapy articulation training.     

Health care need: three interpretations

The argument that scarce health care resources should be distributed so that patients in 'need' are given priority for treatment is rarely contested. In this paper, we argue that if need is to play a significant role in distributive decisions it is crucial that what is meant by need can be precisely articulated. Following a discussion of the general features of health care need, we propose three principal interpretations of need, each of which focuses on separate intuitions. Although this account may not be a completely exhaustive reflection of what people mean when they refer to need, the three interpretations provide a starting-point for further debate of what the concept means in its specific application. We discuss combined interpretations, the meaning of grading needs, and compare needs-based priority setting to social welfare maximisation.     

High functioning children with autism spectrum disorder: a novel test of multitasking

High functioning children with a diagnosis of autism or Asperger's syndrome (HF-ASD) often experience difficulties organising goal-directed actions in their day-to-day lives, requiring support to schedule daily activities. This study aimed to capture these everyday difficulties experimentally using multitasking, a methodology that taps into the cognitive processes necessary for successful goal-directed activities in everyday life. We investigated multitasking in children with HF-ASD using a novel multitask test, the Battersea Multitask Paradigm. Thirty boys participated in the study, 14 with HF-ASD and 16 typically developing controls, matched for age and IQ. Group differences in multitasking were observed. Participants with HF-ASD were less efficient at planning, attempted fewer tasks, switched inflexibly between tasks and broke performance rules more frequently than controls.     

Impaired memory retrieval correlates with individual differences in cortisol response but not autonomic response

Stress can enhance or impair memory performance. Both cortisol release and sympathetic nervous system responses have been implicated in these differential effects. Here we investigated how memory retrieval might be affected by stress-induced cortisol release, independently of sympathetic nervous system stress responses. Thirty-two healthy participants (16 women) learned emotionally arousing and neutral words. One hour later, half of the participants underwent a stressor (cold pressor test) and the other half, a control warm water exposure, both followed by a delayed free recall task. The stressed participants were split into those who did (responders, N = 8) and those who did not (nonresponders, N = 6) show a cortisol response. Both responders and nonresponders showed comparable sympathetic nervous system activity (skin conductance level) during the cold pressor. The cortisol responders recalled significantly fewer words compared to nonresponders, and compared to control participants; this effect was most pronounced for moderately arousing words (compared to highly arousing and neutral words). These results suggest that individual differences in cortisol reactivity affect memory retrieval performance, and help to explain the differential effects of stress on memory.     

Help seeking for alcohol problems in a college population

Despite the availability of effective treatments for problem drinkers, only a minority seek professional assistance. The authors investigated the influences on help seeking for alcohol-related difficulties in two separate studies. In Study 1, 59 men and 74 women completed questionnaires regarding their alcohol use, related problems, readiness to change, and help-seeking interest. The authors also developed a measure of stigma related to alcohol help seeking. Problem recognition, anxiety symptoms, and stigma predicted a global rating of help-seeking. Students (22 men and 60 women) participated in Study 2, which incorporated a multi-item measure of help-seeking intentions as well as attitude and personality measures. Positive attitudes, less perceived stigma, and greater self-efficacy increased help seeking. The findings highlight the importance of both approach and avoidance factors that affect help-seeking decisions, and the authors suggest directions for further research.     

Borderline Personality Disorder and Deliberate Self‐Harm: Does Experiential Avoidance Play a Role?

The theory that borderline personality disorder (BPD) is associated with experiential avoidance, and that experiential avoidance mediates the association between BPD and deliberate, nonsuicidal self-harm was examined. Female inmate participants (N = 105) were given structured diagnostic assessments of BPD, as well as several measures of experiential avoidance. There was a high lifetime prevalence of past self-harm (47.6%). Higher dimensional scores representing BPD severity were associated with higher self-harm frequency and greater experiential avoidance. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that experiential avoidance did not mediate the association between BPD and self-harm, although thought suppression was associated with self-harm frequency.