Sex Differences in Visual Recognition Memory: Support for a Sex-Related Difference in Attention in Adults and Children

The selectivity hypothesis of Meyers-Levy (1989) proposes that cognitive sex differences reflect underlying differences in information processing between males and females. Males are considered to be more likely to organize information in a self-related manner, whereas females are more likely to adopt a comprehensive approach to information processing. We tested this hypothesis in children (10–15 years) and adults using recognition memory tasks. Tests were devised which employed male-oriented objects, female oriented objects, or random objects. In both the child and adult samples, females performed significantly better than males on tests using random and female-oriented objects. Males performed at the level of females only when tested for recognition of male-oriented objects. These results demonstrate that this sex difference is present prior to puberty and support the concept of sex differences in information processing.     

Prerequisite vs. in vivo acquisition of self-feeding skill

Separating the acquisition of prerequisite skills from the learning of skills in vivo may be a more efficacious procedure for self-help training of low functioning developmentally delayed children. Two procedures for training independent use of a fork at meals were compared using two equivalent groups of three subjects each, in multiple baseline design. Using previously accepted procedures, one group was trained during meals while the experimental group received prerequisite training making use of simulated food (styrofoam pieces). Data during training, generalization-to-meal, and follow-up were collected. For 6 months following training, the efficacy of prerequisite training was upheld. The complexity of individual responses to the singular or conjunctive use of social and edible reinforcement for the purpose of self-feeding skill generalization and maintenance, is discussed.     

Social loafing on cognitive tasks: An examination of the “sucker effect”

This study addresses the causes and potential mediators of social loafing on tasks which require active cognitive effort. Contrary to previous research, social loafing did occur despite the use of a task which was thought-provoking, personally involving, and provided the opportunity for unique contributions. The results suggest that equity theory, which has been supported as a reason for social loafing on physical tasks, may also be the basis for loafing on cognitive tasks. No significant loafing occurred when the subjects believed their partners would not loaf.     

Context effects on the judgment of basic emotions in the face

This article reports on three experiments on the controversial topic of context effects in the judgment of emotion from the face. In Experiment 1 (N=169) subjects were shown either a happy, sad, or angry anchor face as context followed by a target slide of a neutral face. In Experiment 2 (N=119) subjects were shown an anchor of a happy or angry face as context and a sad face as target. In Experiment 3 (N=180) subjects were shown an anchor of a happy, sad, or surprised face as context and an angry face as target. All experiments used facial expressions from Ekman and Friesen'sPictures of Facial Affect (1976). Dependent measures included intensity ratings of pleasure and arousal dimensions (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974); a judgment of the intensity of six specific emotions expressed (happy, sad, angry, afraid, disgusted, and interested); and categorical judgments of emotions. Significant context effects were observed for the neutral target and, with smaller effects, for the angry and sad targets on dimensional and intensity ratings. The magnitude of the context effect depended on both the target and anchor facial expressions. Greater categorical agreement of emotion was obtained for the target when another face was provided as a context than when the target face was shown alone. These results provide an independent replication and extension of recent research (Russell, 1991; Russell & Fehr, 1987) on the relativity of facial affect judgment.This research was supported by the Faculty Development Grant from Hofstra University to the first author.     

Predicting Child Restraint Device Use: A Comparison of Two Models1

This study's first objective was to apply Ajzen's theory of planned behavior (TPB) in the context of automobile child restraint device use to identify determinants of that behavior. A second objective was to test two specific hypotheses regarding the predictive role of perceived behavioral control: (a) Its inclusion should increase the proportion of variance already explained in intention by the attitudinal and normative components included in the theory of reasoned action; and (b) given the behavior under study, a model in which perception of behavioral control's influence on behavior is entirely mediated by intention, should fit the data. Subjects (N= 590) were parents driving with their 3- to 5-year-old children intercepted while entering or leaving parking lots of different public settings. The behavior of interest, child restraint device use, was rated by two independent observers. A self-report questionnaire assessing all constructs of Ajzen's model was given to the parent, who was instructed to return it by mail. Data were analyzed using LISREL VII. Results showed that perceived behavioral control and, to a lesser extent, attitude, emerged as the main determinants of behavioral intention which was itself predictive of child restraint device use. In addition, both hypotheses regarding the relation between perceived behavioral control on the one hand and intention and behavior, on the other, were supported. Discussion centered first on the mechanism through which perceived behavioral control exerts its influence, and second on the implications of the present results for the theory of reasoned action as well as for the theory of planned behavior.     

Leader Member Exchange in Leaders’ Support for Voice: Good Relationships Matter in Situations of Power Threat

While previous research underscores the role of leaders in stimulating employee voice behaviour, comparatively little is known about what affects leaders’ support for such constructive but potentially threatening employee behaviours. We introduce leader member exchange quality (LMX) as a central predictor of leaders’ support for employees’ ideas for constructive change. Apart from a general benefit of high LMX for leaders’ idea support, we propose that high LMX is particularly critical to leaders’ idea support if the idea voiced by an employee constitutes a power threat to the leader. We investigate leaders’ attribution of prosocial and egoistic employee intentions as mediators of these effects. Hypotheses were tested in a quasi-experimental vignette study (N = 160), in which leaders evaluated a simulated employee idea, and a field study (N = 133), in which leaders evaluated an idea that had been voiced to them at work. Results show an indirect effect of LMX on leaders’ idea support via attributed prosocial intentions but not via attributed egoistic intentions, and a buffering effect of high LMX on the negative effect of power threat on leaders’ idea support. Results differed across studies with regard to the main effect of LMX on idea support.     

I’m still standing: A longitudinal study on the effect of a default nudge

Objective: This study assessed the effect of a default nudge to reduce sedentary behaviour at work over time.

Design and main outcome measures: A field study was conducted at a governmental organisation. In the present study, the default setting of sit–stand desks (SSDs) was changed from sitting to standing height during a two-week intervention. Stand-up working rates were calculated based on observations that were done prior to, during, two weeks after and two months after the intervention. Additionally, a pre-measure survey (n = 606) and post-measure survey (n = 354) were completed. Intention and social norms concerning stand-up working were compared for the 183 employees who completed both pre- and post-assessments (45.4% female, M_age = 44.21).

Results: Stand-up working rates raised from 1.82% in the baseline to 13.13% during the intervention. After the nudge was removed the percentage was 10.01% after two weeks and 7.78% after two months. A multilevel analysis indicated a significant increase in both intention and social norms after the nudge intervention.

Conclusions: This study shows that a default nudge can increase stand-up working rates in offices with SSDs at least until two months after the nudge intervention.     

The Role of Family Functioning in Bipolar Disorder in Families

Investigated the association between family functioning and conflict and their links with mood disorder in parents and with children's risk for bipolar disorder. Participants were 272 families with a child between the ages of 5-17 years. Parents' history of psychiatric diagnoses and children's current diagnoses were obtained via semi-structured interviews. Parent report on the Family Assessment Device and the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire measured family functioning and conflict, respectively. Results revealed a small but significant indirect pathway from parental diagnosis of mood disorder to child bipolar disorder through impaired family functioning, via increased family conflict. Parental mood disorders were also significantly related to other negative outcomes in children, including unipolar depression and oppositional defiant disorder. Associations between parent diagnoses and family functioning changed depending on youth age, but not youth sex.     

The transportability of multisystemic therapy to Sweden: short-term results from a randomized trial of conduct-disordered youths

This randomized clinical trial assessed the effectiveness of multisystemic therapy (MST) for 156 youths who met the diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder. Sweden's 3 largest cities and 1 small town served as the recruiting area for the study. A mixed factorial design was used, with random allocation between MST and treatment as usual groups. Assessments were conducted at intake and 7 months after referral. With an intention-to-treat approach, results from multiagent and multimethod assessment batteries showed a general decrease in psychiatric problems and antisocial behaviors among participants across treatments. There were no significant differences in treatment effects between the 2 groups. The lack of treatment effect did not appear to be caused by site differences or variations in program maturity. MST treatment fidelity was lower than that of other studies, although not clearly related to treatment outcomes in this study. The results are discussed in terms of differences between Sweden and the United States. One difference is the way in which young offenders are processed (a child welfare approach vs. a juvenile justice system approach). Sociodemographic differences (e.g., rates of poverty, crime, and substance abuse) between the 2 countries may also have moderating effects on the rates of rehabilitation among young offenders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

Childhood Healthcare Experience,Healthcare Attitudes,and Optimism as Predictors of Adolescents’ Healthcare Behavior

Late adolescence and early adulthood is a time when people establish many of their life-style behaviors. Thus, in order to promote optimal health, it is important to identify factors predictive of young adults’ healthcare behavior. This study evaluated the relationship between measures of childhood healthcare experience, healthcare attitudes, and optimism with young adults’ healthcare behavior in a sample of college students (n = 100). Results suggested that prior healthcare experience, attitudes about healthcare, and optimism are associated with current healthcare behavior. In addition, the relation between childhood healthcare experience and current healthcare behavior was moderated by optimism, such that those who reported both more negative childhood healthcare experiences and low levels of optimism reported the least adaptive healthcare behaviors and those who reported the most positive childhood healthcare experience and the highest levels of optimism reported the most adaptive healthcare behavior.