New perspectives in temperament/personality research: The “Behavioral” model of the Warsaw group

This paper reviews the theory and research of the Warsaw school of differential psychophysiology, which has modified and extended the typologic model constructed by Teplov and Nebylitsyn. While Soviet theory still favors a relatively inflexible structure of nervous system properties as the biologic basis of individual differences in personality, Strelau and colleagues, in line with the action/activity model of Vygotsky and Tomaszewski, begin with the premise that for every individual there is a specific, genetically determined optimal level of arousal, a necessary background for fullest emotional and intellectual development. The person strives to create this optimal climate through an active process of stimulation control, achieved primarily through enhancement or dampening of reactivity—which describes innate responsivity in the reacting systems to both sensory and emotional stimuli—through various hormonal ‘tuning’ mechanisms and through “appropriate” activity, reflected in different cognitive styles and preference for certain work conditions. Such activities aim to ensure comfortable physical and psychologic environments, in which the individual can avoid conflict and stress. The system regulating and integrating such control mechanisms is the core of personality. Investigations of the Warsaw group on relationships between reactivity and different forms of stimulation seeking/control—risk-taking, work style preferences, cognitive style, defense mechanisms, for example—and between reactivity and tolerance of stress and conflict and their speculations about the neurophysiologic and endocrinologic mechanisms of stimulation control are described, as are a number of questionnaires developed by this group to measure reactivity, the temporal parameters of response, and stimulation-seeking in a variety of occupational and social contexts.     

Picture perception: An analysis of visual compensation

Although geometric information is altered when a picture’s viewing point is changed, such changes often do not affect perception. Two experiments assessed pictorial perception relative to the distortions introduced by viewing point dislocation. Results provide a psychophysical demonstration of pictorial compensation and suggest that it is based on the discrepancy between the actual and an assumed-correct viewing position. An explanation of pictorial compensation is offered that could be applied to direct picture perception and to picture-in-a-picture perception.     

On knowing the meaning of words we are unable to report confirmation of a guessing explanation

This experiment investigated Allport's (1977) claim that normal subjects can be induced to make semantic errors of the type characterised by “deep dyslexia”. The procedure followed that used by Allport except that a subject based control for the chance level of semantic errors was included. The results replicated the original finding by producing a semantic error rate of 12·7%. It was shown, however, that this rate was not significantly higher than the calculated chance rate of 11·5%. It was concluded, therefore, that the semantic error rates reported by Allport can be accounted for in terms of a guessing artefact and thus they bear no relevance to the problem of deep dyslexia.     

Interaction of genetics and separation in canine hyperkinesis and in differential responses to amphetamine

A model of childhood hyperkinesis, using the Telomian-beagle hybrid dog, is described, demonstrating the interactions of genetics and separation in the development of this syndrome and in the favorable responses of some of these dogs to amphetamine. This work represents the collaboration of three laboratories, utilizing chiefly methods of inhibitory training. Inducing separation distress enhanced the resistance to inhibitory training and the favorable responses to amphetamine.     

Hand differences in the rate and variability of rapid tapping

Hand differences in the rate and variability of rapid tapping were evaluated for the intertap interval and its constituents-the key depression and key release phases of each tap. To accentuate potential hand differences, only subjects with a clear manual superiority in one hand were included. Relative manual proficiency on Fitts' reciprocal tapping task was used to exclude individuals with less-defined hand superiority or dominance, and to categorize subjects as having a dominant left (n=13) or right (n=11) hand. Analysis of variance indicated the dominant hand to have a shorter average intertap interval and thus a faster tapping rate. This hand difference in rate was found to be significant for the key-depression phase, but not the key-release.phase, of the tap. In each handedness group the dominant hand exhibited less variability in the intertap interval and both constituents. Potential associations of these findings with hemispheric asymmetries in sequential ability are discussed.     

The development of sexual identity

The development of sexual identity was studied in 686 individuals, using a fantasy measure of sexual identity that does not depend on learned sex-role stereotypes. The results showed a marked differentiation between the sexes at pre-adolescence, a loss of differentiation during the freshman year of college that most closely resembled the lack of differentiation in sexual identity of preschool children, and a reemergence of a clear sexual identity during the last years of college. Possible biological, social context, and psychodynamic-maturational explanations for this pattern of development are discussed.     

Assessment of personality and demographic aspects of cohabitation and marital success

The outcomes of 68 marriages of four-year duration were compared on the basis of whether the partners had or had not cohabited premaritally. Background characteristics and personality data were assessed on those couples when there were newly married, and they were followed-up four years later to determine their current marital status, level of satisfaction, difficulty with various problem areas and the number of children born to them. No reliable differences on marital satisfaction or divorce rates between premarital cohabitors and noncohabitors were found. Cohabitors who divorced did so while reporting less marital distress than noncohabitors who divorced. Premarital cohabitors had significantly fewer children than noncohabitors. Degree of difficulty experienced on various problem areas differed between the groups. Certain personality and background variables predicted marital success differently for the two groups. Using the same selected set of six predictor variables, multiple regression equations were generated for cohabitors and noncohabitors. The cohabitors equation (R2 = .56) predicted marital success significantly more effectively than the noncohabitors equation (R2 = .28), When comparing the tri-weight vectors for these two equations, none of the predictor variables had the same influence in both groups. Theoretical implications of the findings were discussed.     

Alternative fixed-ratio fixed-interval schedules of reinforcement

Five rats were trained under alternative fixed-ratio fixed-interval schedules, in which food reinforcement was provided for the completion of either a fixed-ratio or a fixed-interval requirement, whichever was met first. Overall response rate and running rate (the rate of responding after the postreinforcement pause) decreased for all subjects as the fixed-ratio value increased. As the proportion of reinforcements obtained from the fixed-ratio component increased and the alternative schedule approached a simple fixed ratio, overall response rate and running rate both increased; conversely, as the proportion of reinforcements obtained from the fixed-interval component increased and the alternative schedule approached a simple fixed interval, response rates decreased. Postreinforcement pause length increased linearly as the average time between reinforcements increased, regardless of the schedule parameters. A break-run pattern of responding was predominant at low- and medium-valued fixed ratios. All subjects displayed at least occasional positively accelerated responding within interreinforcement intervals at higher fixed-ratio values.