Putting inference to the best explanation in its place

This paper discusses the nature and the status of inference to the best explanation (IBE). We (1) outline the foundational role given IBE by its defenders and the arguments of critics who deny it any place at all; (2) argue that, on the two main conceptions of explanation, IBE cannot be a foundational inference rule; (3) sketch an account of IBE that makes it contextual and dependent on substantive empirical assumptions, much as simplicity seems to be; (4) show how that account avoids the critics' complaints and leaves IBE an important role; and (5) sketch how our account can clarify debates over IBE in arguments for scientific realism.The general line of argumentation developed in this paper owes much to the most recent work of Elliot Sober on simplicity and confirmation; we want to acknowledge that dependence directly. Since writing this paper, we have also come across Yemima Ben-Menahem: 1990, The Inference to the Best Explanation,Erkenntnis 33, 319–44, whose general approach parallels our own. Helpful comments were made on earlier drafts by George Graham, Romane Clark, Yemima Ben-Menahem, and an anonymous referee.     

Characteristics of Therapist Self-Disclosure in the Counseling Process

A survey was sent to practicing therapists to investigate their uses of self-disclosure in counseling and psychotherapy. A total of 46% returned surveys, and most indicated that they used at least some self-disclosure in their work with clients. Overall, respondents reported disclosing about professional qualifications and experience most often and indicated that they disclosed mainly to increase similarity between themselves and clients.     

Word superiority over isolated letters: The neglected case of forward masking

Previous research shows that when briefly presented alphabetic stimuli are followed by pattern masks, letters in words are reported more accurately than are isolated letters (the “Word-Letter Phenomenon,” or WLP); however, when these masks are replaced by blank fields, the WLP disappears. These findings have led to the popular notion that the WLP reflects selective masking of ongoing stimulus processing and so critically depends on the use of poststimulus masks. Here we report three experiments which re-examine the role of masking in the WLP by contrasting the effects of postmasked displays with the effects of premasked displays in which words and isolated letters werepreceded by a pattern mask and followedby a completely blank field. Despite the critical role generally assigned to poststimulus pattern masks, similar WLPs were obtained with pre- and postmasked displays. Implications for theories of word and letter recognition are discussed.     

Introduction: Social Cognition, Psychodynamic Psychology, and the Representation and Processing of Emotionally Significant Information

ABSTRACT This special issue examines two perspectives on how people comprehend and respond to significant features of their lives: psychoanalytic psychology and social cognition. The articles included present new empirical findings relevant to die overlap of psychoanalysis and social-cognitive psychology, as well as commentaries from each perspective. This introduction summarizes important conceptual and methodological challenges in the integration of two such distinct approaches to emotionally significant information.     

TRANSFER OF BEHAVIORAL FUNCTION AS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN TREATMENT RELAPSE

When relapse occurs following successful treatment to reduce problem behavior, it is often attributed to inconsistent implementation of maintenance programs. Although less likely, another potential cause for relapse is a change in the behavior's maintaining contingency over time. To examine this possibility, additional assessment was conducted with 4 individuals who were rereferred to a day-treatment program due to recurrence of their self-injurious behavior (SIB) 2 months to 2 years following successful treatment. In each case, the original treatment had been developed and implemented based on the outcome of functional analysis assessments. For 1 subject, results of a second functional analysis were consistent with those from the original assessment, indicating that the function of her SIB had remained unchanged. For the other 3 subjects, results of the second assessment suggested that their SIB had acquired new or additional functions. These findings indicate that factors other than program inconsistency can lead to relapse, and that clinical revaluation for such cases should include a current functional analysis to determine if new treatment components are needed.     

Heterogeneity among specific phobia types in DSM-IV

Recently, it has been suggested that situational specific phobias (e.g., phobias of driving, flying, enclosed places) are more closely related to agorophobia than are other specific phobia types. The present study investigated this hypothesis by examining heterogeneity among the four main DSM-IV specific phobia types, particularly with respect to variables believed to be associated with agoraphobia. Using interviews and behavioral testing, 60 patients with specific phobias of animals, heights, blood/injections, or driving were compared with respect to etiology, age of onset, physiological response, predictability of panic attacks, and focus of apprehension. Fifteen patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia served as a comparison group for some measures. Relative to the other specific phobias, driving phobias were most strongly associated with a later age of onset, similar to that of individuals with agoraphobia. Height phobias were also associated with a late age of onset as well as a more internal focus of apprehension, relative to other groups. Finally, individuals in the blood/injection phobia group reported a more internal focus of apprehension than those in other groups and were the only group to report a history of fainting in the phobic situation. Overall, the results did not support the hypothesis that situational phobias are a variant of agoraphobia. In fact, on several of the variables for which groups did differ, individuals with height phobias (a phobia from the natural environment type) showed a pattern most similar to individuals with agoraphobia. The implications of these results for the classification of specific phobias are discussed.     

Impartiality in pre-entry guidance for adults in further education colleges

The growth in the provision of guidance through institution-based services in the United Kingdom has raised concerns about whether the principle of impartiality is being compromised. The understandings and practices of impartiality among those involved in providing pre-entry guidance to adults in three further education colleges in London are examined. A complex picture is presented in which impartiality is only one aspect of guidance and one with different and uncertain meanings emerging from and situated within differing individual, social and institutional contexts. Thus while the meaning of impartiality can be clearly stated in professional codes of practice and quality frameworks, its meanings in practice are less clear. Further areas of research are identified.     

Interlimb coordination: Learning and transfer under different feedback conditions

The role of intrinsic and extrinsic information feedback in learning a new bimanual coordination pattern was investigated. The pattern required continuous flexion-extension movements of the upper limbs with a 90 ° phase offset. Separate groups practiced the task under one of the following visual feedback conditions: (a) blindfolded (reduced FB group), (b) with normal vision (normal FB group), or (c) with concurrent relative motion information (enhanced FB group). All groups were subjected to three different transfer test conditions at regular intervals during practice. These tests included reduced, normal vision, and enhanced vision conditions. Experiment 1 showed that the group receiving augmented information feedback about its relative motions in real-time produced the required coordination pattern more successfully than the remaining two groups, irrespective of the transfer conditions under which performance was evaluated. Experiment 2 replicated and extended the superiority of the enhanced feedback group during acquisition and retention. Experiment 3 demonstrated that successful transfer to various transfer test conditions was not a result of test-trial effects. Overall, the data suggest that the conditions that optimized performance of the coordination pattern during acquisition also optimized transfer performance.     

VIEWPOINT DEPENDENCE IN SCENE RECOGNITION

Abstract— Two experiments investigated the viewpoint dependence of spatial memories. In Experiment 1, participants learned the locations of objects on a desktop from a single perspective and then took part in a recognition test, test scenes included familiar and novel views of the layout. Recognition latency was a linear function of the angular distance between a test view and the study view. In Experiment 2, participants studied a layout from a single view and then learned to recognize the layout from three additional training views. A final recognition test showed that the study view and the training views were represented in memory, and that latency was a linear function of the angular distance to the nearest study or training view. These results indicate that interobject spatial relations are encoded in a viewpoint-dependent manner, and that recognition of novel views requires normalization to the most similar representation in memory. These findings parallel recent results in visual object recognition