The Benefits of Using Psychotherapy Skills Following Treatment for Depression: An Examination of “Afterwork” and a Test of the Skills Hypothesis in Older Adults

It has long been assumed that one of the reasons clients maintain improvement after psychotherapy is that they learn skills during the course of therapy and continue to apply them once therapy has ended. While research on homework completion and psychotherapy outcome provides support for this assumption, there has been no direct examination of “afterwork,” the use of skills learned in therapy after therapy has ended, or how those posttherapy skills differ across different theoretical approaches. The purpose of this study is to test a skills hypothesis of long-term psychotherapeutic benefit in a sample of 90 older adults who have completed psychotherapy for depression. Helpfulness of the techniques learned in therapy was negatively associated with depressive symptoms up to 2 years after treatment. The number of techniques used was positively correlated with depressive symptoms within 6 months of treatment once helpfulness was controlled, indicating that skills learned in therapy are used when symptoms return. There were also between-group differences in which skills were reported to be covered and used by patients after therapy ended. These findings support the expectation that the benefits of therapy are extended by continuing to use helpful skills learned in therapy.     

A descriptive analysis of social consequences following problem behavior.

The social consequences delivered for problem behavior during functional analyses are presumed to represent common sources of reinforcement; Final acceptance however, the extent to which these consequences actually follow problem behavior in natural settings remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether access to attention, escape, or tangible items is frequently observed as a consequence of problem behavior under naturalistic conditions. Twenty‐seven adults who lived in a state residential facility and who exhibited self‐injurious behavior, aggression, or disruption participated. Observers recorded the occurrence of problem behavior by participants as well as a variety of consequences delivered by caregivers. Results indicated that attention was the most common consequence for problem behavior and that aggression was more likely to produce social consequences than were other forms of problem behavior.     

Battle of the sexes: gender stereotype confirmation and reactance in negotiations.

The authors examined how gender stereotypes affect negotiation performance. Men outperformed women when the negotiation was perceived as diagnostic of ability (Experiment 1) or the negotiation was linked to gender-specific traits (Experiment 2), suggesting the threat of negative stereotype confirmation hurt women's performance relative to men. The authors hypothesized that men and women confirm gender stereotypes when they are activated implicitly, but when stereotypes are explicitly activated, people exhibit stereotype reactance, or the tendency to behave in a manner inconsistent with a stereotype. Experiment 3 confirmed this hypothesis. In Experiment 4, the authors examined the cognitive processes involved in stereotype reactance and the conditions under which cooperative behaviors between men and women can be promoted at the bargaining table (by activating a shared identity that transcends gender).     

Longitudinal change in language production: effects of aging and dementia on grammatical complexity and propositional content.

Mixed modeling was used to examine longitudinal changes in linguistic ability in healthy older adults and older adults with dementia. Language samples, vocabulary scores, and digit span scores were collected annually from healthy older adults and semiannually from older adults with dementia. The language samples were scored for grammatical complexity and propositional content. For the healthy group, age-related declines in grammatical complexity and propositional content were observed. The declines were most rapid in the mid 70s. For the group with dementia, grammatical complexity and propositional content also declined over time, regardless of age. Rates of decline were uniform across individuals. These analyses reveal how both grammatical complexity and propositional content are related to late-life changes in cognition in healthy older adults aswell as those with dementia. Alzheimer's disease accelerates this decline, regardless of age.     

Self‐ratings in Training Programs: An Examination of Level of Performance and the Effects of Feedback

The level of agreement (mean differences and correlations) between self, peer and training staff ratings were examined in this study. The sample consisted of 545 participants who were undertaking a Royal Australian Airforce officer training program. Consistent with previous research there was strong agreement between training staff and peers and weak agreement between self‐ratings and ratings by others (training staff and peers). Accuracy of ratings was examined by (a) comparing the mean ratings of outstanding, average and below‐average performers; and (b) correlating difference scores with a measure of performance. The findings showed that below‐average performers have a less accurate view of themselves compared to outstanding performers. Finally, we examined the effects of negative feedback on self‐perceptions. The analyses indicated that after receiving negative feedback, average performers adjusted their self‐ratings. Various explanations were proposed together with practical implications for training.     

Arousal, Mood, and the Mozart Effect

The "Mozart effect" refers to claims that people perform better on tests of spatial abilities after listening to music composed by Mozart. We examined whether the Mozart effect is a consequence of between-condition differences in arousal and mood. Participants completed a test of spatial abilities after listening to music or sitting in silence. The music was a Mozart sonata (a pleasant and energetic piece) for some participants and an Albinoni adagio (a slow, sad piece) for others. We also measured enjoyment, arousal, and mood. Performance on the spatial task was better following the music than the silence condition, but only for participants who heard Mozart. The two music selections also induced differential responding on the enjoyment, arousal, and mood measures. Moreover, when such differences were held constant by statistical means, the Mozart effect disappeared. These findings provide compelling evidence that the Mozart effect is an artifact of arousal and mood.     

An historical commentary on the physiological effects of music: Tomatis, Mozart and neuropsychology

This article provides an overview of the theoretical underpinnings of the Tomatis Method, along with a commentary on other forms of sound/music training and the need for research. A public debate was sparked over the “Mozart Effect.” This debate has turned out to be unfortunate because the real story is being missed. The real story starts with Alfred Tomatis, M.D., scientist and innovator. Dr. Tomatis was the first to develop a technique using modified music to stimulate the rich interconnections between the ear and the nervous system to integrate aspects of human development and behavior. The originating theories behind the Tomatis Method are reviewed to describe the ear’s clear connection to the brain and the nervous system. The “neuropsychology of sound training” describes how and what the Tomatis Method effects. Since Dr. Tomatis opened this field in the mid 20th century, no fewer than a dozen offshoot and related systems of training have been developed. Though each new system of treatment makes clains of effectiveness, no research exists to substantiate their claims. Rather, each simplified system bases its “right to exist and advertise” on the claimed relationship to Tomatis and his complex Method. Research is desperately needed in this area. The 50 years of clinical experience and anecdotal evidence amassed by Tomatis show that sound stimulation can provide a valuable remediation and developmental training tool for people of all ages. Offshoot systems have watered down the Tomatis Method without research to guide the decisions of simplifying the techniques and equipment.     

Counsellor response to clients' metaphors: An evaluation and refinement of Strong's model

Experienced counsellors recorded clients' metaphors, their responses to the metaphors and their views on the effects of the interchange. Two of the three responses in Strong's model of counsellor response to clients' metaphors were used frequently. They were: explicating what is implicit in a metaphor and therapeutically extending or modifying it. The third response proposed by Strong'the counsellor creating and delivering a 'therapeutic metaphor''was used only once. A further kind of response was found: the counsellor recognizing and remembering a client's metaphor for possible future use. Overall, Strong's model was supported. The effect of counsellor orientation on counsellor response to clients' metaphors and the value and use of metaphors in counselling are briefly discussed, and some guidelines suggested.     

RESURGENCE OF INFANT CAREGIVING RESPONSES

Two experiments were conducted to identify the conditions likely to produce resurgence among adult human participants. The preparation was a simulated caregiving context, wherein a recorded infant cry sounded and was terminated contingent upon targeted caregiving responses. Results of Experiment 1 demonstrated resurgence with human participants in this negative reinforcement preparation. Results of Experiment 2 showed that responses with a longer history of reinforcement showed a stronger resurgence effect relative to responses with a shorter and more recent history of reinforcement. These results show that the resurgence phenomenon occurs across populations and types of reinforcers. Additionally, results indicate that length of reinforcement history is a variable that may affect the magnitude of resurgence.