Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance

Two tasks where failures of cognitive control are especially prevalent are task-switching and spatial Simon task paradigms. Both tasks require considerable strategic control for the participant to avoid the costs associated with switching tasks (task-switching paradigm) and to minimize the influence of spatial location (Simon task). In the current study, we assessed whether the use of a self-regulatory strategy known as "implementation intentions" would have any beneficial effects on performance in each of these task domains. Forming an implementation intention (i.e., an if-then plan) is a self-regulatory strategy in which a mental link is created between a pre-specified future cue and a desired goal-directed response, resulting in facilitated goal attainment (Gollwitzer in European Review of Social Psychology, 4, 141-185, 1993, American Psychologist, 54, 493-503, 1999). In Experiment 1, forming implementation intentions in the context of a task-switching paradigm led to a reduction in switch costs. In Experiment 2, forming implementation intentions reduced the effects of spatial location in a Simon task for the stimulus specified in the implementation intention. Results supported the prediction that the need for high levels of cognitive control can be alleviated to some degree by making if-then plans that specify how one responds to that critical stimuli.     

An experimental investigation of referential looking in free-ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

The authors examined looking behavior between 15 Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) infants and their mothers in the presence of a rubber snake (experimental period) and in the absence of the snake (control period). Two of the 15 infants looked referentially at their mother in the experimental period. Including both referential and nonreferential looks, the six older infants (aged 5 to 12 months) displayed a higher frequency of looks to mother than nine younger infants (aged 3 to 4.5 months) in the experimental period, but not in the control period. Older infants looked more to the mother in the experimental condition, whereas the younger infants looked more to the mother in the control condition, or looked equally in the two conditions. These results suggest that age is an important factor in determining looking behavior to mother in situations of uncertainty. Compared to hand-reared chimpanzees or human infants tested in standard social referencing paradigms, the infant macaques displayed a low rate of referential looking. Possible explanations for this are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

Parameterization of connectionist models.

We present a method for estimating parameters of connectionist models that allows the model's output to fit as closely as possible to empirical data. The method minimizes a cost function that measures the difference between statistics computed from the model's output and statistics computed from the subjects' performance. An optimization algorithm finds the values of the parameters that minimize the value of this cost function. The cost function also indicates whether the model's statistics are significantly different from the data's. In some cases, the method can find the optimal parameters automatically. In others, the method may facilitate the manual search for optimal parameters. The method has been implemented in Matlab, is fully documented, and is available for free download from the Psychonomic Society Web archive at www.psychonomic.org/archive/.     

Components and Symbols of Ethnic Identity: A Case Study in Informal Education and Identity Formation in Diaspora

L’identité des membres de groupes ethniques qui vivent dans de nombreux pays est influencée par la culture environnante. Ce travail développe un outil qui peit aider les chercheurs à comprendre la façon dont les individus vivent leur identité ethnique. On analyse les composantes et les symboles qui fixent l’dentification ethnique. L’application de techniques d’analyse multidimentionnelle à un ensemble de données empiriques révéla une structure identitaire sur deux axes (cognitif–affectif; particulier–universel). Cette structure permet de faire des comparaisons entre des sous‐populations nationales selon leurs perceptions et accentuations diversifiées de l’identité ethnique. On examine ici les cas de membres de l’enseignement relevant de l’éducation juive informelle. 2119 de ces personnes provenant de sept pays ont fourni des définitions d’elles‐mêmes et des symboles qui exprimaient leur lien avec l’héritage ethnique et religieux. Cette typologie de base pourrait être utilisée dans des études portant sur d’autres groupes ethniques dont les membres ont émigré dans divers pays d’acceuil. The ethnic identity of members of ethnic groups who live in a number of different countries is influenced by the surrounding cultures. This study develops a tool which can help researchers understand the ways in which individuals perceive their own ethnic identity. The components and symbols that determine ethnic identification are analysed. By applying multidimensional analysis techniques to a set of empirical data, we were able to uncover a structure of identity along two axes: the cognitive/affective and the specific/universal. This structure enables us to make comparisons between national sub‐populations in terms of their various emphases and perceptions of ethnic identity. We examine here the case of staff members in Jewish informal educational settings: 2,119 staff members from seven countries were surveyed on the self‐definitions and symbols that express their relationship with their ethnic and religious heritage. This basic typology could be used in studies of other ethnic groups whose members have emigrated to a number of host countries.     

The effect of perceptual distinctiveness on the prospective and retrospective components of prospective memory in young and old adults.

In two experiments, the effect of perceptual distinctiveness of cues on prospective memory performance was examined. Young and older adults completed a visual search task with embedded prospective memory instructions. On each trial, participants were asked to indicate the position of a target letter in a letter string, unless either of two letters previously identified as prospective memory cues was presented. Each prospective cue was associated with a specific response. Perceptual distinctiveness was manipulated by spatially displacing a single letter. The prospective component (successful detection of the cue) and the retrospective memory component (recalling the correct response when a cue is detected) were measured separately. Perceptual displacement of cues modulated performance of the prospective component but not the retrospective component. Young adults successfully detected a larger proportion of cues (prospective component) than older adults. However, there were minimal effects of age and no effect of cue displacement on participants' ability to recall the intention once they detected a cue (retrospective component performance). Results are discussed within the context of current theoretical models of prospective memory.     

Catholic Priests and the Political Order: The Political Behavior of Catholic Pastors

A nationwide mail survey of Catholic priests is analyzed with respect to their political behavior in the presidential election of 2000. Priests exhibit a slight tendency to self-identify as political liberals, and a strong tendency to identify with the Democratic Party. Nevertheless, Bill Clinton won a very narrow victory over Bob Dole among priests in 1996, and George W. Bush trounced Al Gore among Catholic clergy in 2000. My analysis suggests that support for Gore was motivated by concern for hunger and poverty among Catholic priests, while support for Bush was driven primarily by priestly opposition to abortion. Political participation among priests was predicted by the importance attached to social justice concerns, and by congruence between the social and economic views of each priest and his congregation.