The effect of duration of exposure on systematic desensitization and extinction.

An important variable which has only recently received attention (Proctor, 1968; Watts, 1971) is the influence of intra-item exposure time to aversive stimuli on systematic desensitization. Long single exposure to hierarchy items was more effective in reducing avoidance behavior than short exposure (Ross and Proctor, 1973). It is possible, therefore, for duration of exposure to be a confounding variable in previous desensitization research.In studies where exposure only conditions were ineffective (Davison, 1968; Lomont and Edwards, 1967), the visualization time was less than 15 sec. Successful utilization of extinction-like procedures employed longer exposure times (Vodde and Gilner, 1971 for 20–30 sec; Crowder and Thornton, 1970 for 30 sec; Sue, 1972 for 20 sec; Nawas, Welsch and Fishman, 1970 for 60 sec: Wolpin and Raines, 1966 for up to 10 min).Intra-item exposure time may also account for the discrepant findings on the influence of cognitive variables on the efficacy of systematic desensitization. In the studies where expectations or therapeutic instructions were important (Leitenberg et al., 1969; Valins and Ray, 1967), subjects were exposed to aversive stimuli for 10–15 sec. Where positive expectations were unimportant, the exposure time was longer (McGlynn and Mapp, 1970 for 20–30 sec; McGlynn, Gaynor and Puhr, 1972 for 20–30 sec; McGlynn, Reynolds and Linder, 1971 for 20–40 sec; Lomont and Brock, 1971 for 60 sec). Therapeutic expectations, relaxation, and other variables may assume importance during periods of short exposure.So far, there has been no adequate investigation of intra-item exposure time on both extinction and desensitization. The procedures employed by Watts (1971) and Proctor (1968) do not allow such a comparison to be made. The purpose of the present study is to examine the influence of short (5 sec) and lengthy (30 sec) exposure to aversive stimuli on extinction and desensitization conditions.In line with the results of Davison (1968) and Lomont and Edwards (1967), it was predicted that exposure of short duration would be less effective than exposure of longer duration under the extinction condition (Vodde and Gilner, 1971 ; Crowder and Thronton, 1970; Nawas et al., 1970; Wolpin and Raines, 1966). No specific predictions were made on the desensitization groups. There were four experimental groups: (1) two exposure only groups (visualization for either 5 sec or 30 sec), and (2) two systematic desensitization groups (visualization for 5 sec or 30 sec). A no-treatment control group was also employed.     

Individual Differences, Situational Constraints, and Police Shooting Incidents

Differences in the personal nature of police officers as well as differences among the situational constraints due to assignments are considered in an examination of the occurrences of police involvement in shooting incidents. The Poisson and negative binomial models used in accident research are considered for representing the occurrence of shooting incidents. Data were gathered from incidents in a large metropolitan police department over a 34-month period and used to test the two models. Various analyses indicate a good Poisson fit. Implications of the data are discussed.     

What makes a good counsellor? An analysis of ways in which counsellor trainers construe good and bad counselling trainees

As part of an investigation into criteria used by counsellor trainers to distinguish between good and bad students of counselling, experienced counsellor trainers were asked to complete a repertory grid. Each trainer was asked to list five good counsellor trainees and five not so good or bad counselling trainees they had worked with, as elements for the grid. Repertory grid forms were provided by the researcher with spaces for ten constructs which were elicited from the trainers in the standard triadic manner. For each elicited construct subjects were asked to rate each trainee on a five point scale. Twenty-seven correctly completed grids were collected. The 262 constructs elicited were conflated into 22 semantically similar categories by the researcher and independent raters. The data was subjected to statistical analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Services (SPSS). Overall the constructs that were most frequently used in describing trainees were open-closed, personable/aloof, secure-insecure, professionally skilled-unskilled. The mean differences for scores of good and bad trainees for each of the 22 conflated constructs were calculated. The greatest mean difference related to professional competence. The 22 conflated constructs were subsumed into three categories, and the mean of the difference between ratings for good and bad trainees within each category was calculated. Counselling related competence showed the greatest mean difference. Implications for counselling course curricula and the selection and assessment of counsellor trainees are discussed.     

Teachers’ Beliefs of Creative Children

Teachers’ beliefs about characteristics of creative children do not always align with how creative children actually behave. Understanding these misaligned beliefs—defined as misconceptions—is important because teachers’ misconceptions can undermine efforts to foster children's creative development. This study aimed to identify teachers’ beliefs about the characteristics of creative children with an emphasis on their misconceptions about characteristics as either indicative or contraindicative of creative children. We analyzed responses of 136 teachers to 29 characteristics, indicating or contraindicating creative children, on Gough's (1979). Creative Personality Scale using the Rating Scale Model. Results revealed that teachers tended to have more misconceptions about characteristics contraindicative of creative children than characteristics indicative of creative children while teachers were able to accurately recognize certain characteristics when compared with explicit theories of creativity. In both the indicative and contraindicative characteristics, misconceptions appeared to increase if characteristics were desirable in the classroom. Teachers’ misconceptions may conceal creative potential in children who do not manage their undesirable characteristics in constructive ways. Findings provide practical implications to aid teachers and teacher educators in correcting misconceptions about the characteristics of creative children.     

Pub and community: The views of Birmingham untreated heavy drinkers

This paper reports the results of a qualitative analysis of semi‐structured interviews with 79 members of the Birmingham Untreated Heavy Drinkers Cohort. The cohort was recruited in 1997 when all participants were drinking 50 or more standard units of alcohol (men) or 35 or more units (women) most weeks. Present interviews were carried out as part of the fourth wave of interviews, held in 2003. The topic was the participants' places of drinking in the community and the functions those places served. The present analysis focused on the relationship between pubs and community. The strongest theme to emerge was that the pub provided for many participants a real sense of community in itself. It did so by enabling participants to meet with like‐minded others, in a setting distinct from home or work, where conversing and confiding could take place in a relaxed atmosphere, with a range of other activities and forms of social support available to many. At the same time, participants were discriminating about which pubs they used, and when, and with whom they chose to interact. There was less consensus about whether the pub served a wider function by contributing to a positive sense of community in the local neighbourhood. It is suggested that English pubs, at least in a large conurbation such as the West Midlands, are very varied, sometimes continuing to serve as ‘the local’ for a community, sometimes being part of a variety of drinking places which between them provide people with a diversity of social niches to meet their increasingly diverse choices and preferences, and sometimes reflecting and even contributing to local community disorganisation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using Narrow Facets of an Integrity Test to Predict Safety: A test validation study

This paper describes the development and validation of an integrity test, the WorkKeys Performance Assessment, designed specifically to measure two domains: employee risk reduction (i.e., safety behavior) and general work attitudes. These domains were hypothesized to differentially predict multiple work outcomes, including task performance, organizational citizenship, counterproductive behavior, and safety. The study used a large sample of workers whose performance was rated by their supervisors. Results suggest that both integrity domains predict employee behavior, with risk reduction providing incremental validity over general work attitudes when predicting counterproductive and safety behavior. The findings support the value of measuring both domains of integrity.     

Parental Narratives About Genetic Testing for Hearing Loss: A One Year Follow Up Study

Few studies examine whether and how parental attitudes towards genetic testing change over time. In this study we interviewed parents of 14 children with newly identified hearing loss at two time points: after referral to genetics and 1 year later. Qualitative analyses of parental narratives indicate that parental attitudes did not change significantly over this time. Parents who perceived genetic testing to be useful continued to value it after testing, while parents who did not perceive it as being useful for their child’s future held the same view a year later. The only parents who changed their views regarding the usefulness of genetic testing for hearing loss were those who reported that their children underwent significant changes in their hearing loss or were faced with other life threatening conditions. Parents were also often unaware of the role of the genetic counselor and how genetic counseling could help address many of their lingering questions and concerns. These emergent themes indicate the need for geneticists and genetic counselors to be aware of and sensitized to the questions and attitudes that bring parents to a genetic evaluation, as well as the reasons why parents may not follow up with genetic testing for hearing loss when recommended.     

How do women experience myocardial infarction? A qualitative exploration of illness perceptions, adjustment and coping

While UK Department of Health policy recognizes the importance of secondary prevention and rehabilitation following a cardiac event, there still appears a dearth of research addressing women's needs. This study aimed to explore adjustment in terms of women's perception of their cardiac event, impact on relationships and coping strategies employed. Five women suffering first time MI were interviewed, using a semi-structured format and were telephoned 2 months later. Data were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Perceptions included: Making Sense of the Event, Cognitive and Emotional Responses and Self-beliefs. Relationships issues were: Others' Reactions and Change in Relationships and Roles. Cognitive and Behavioural strategies and Support from others (including cardiac rehabilitation) formed coping strategies. For most participants, the event was unexpected evoking uncertainty and later, emotions extending beyond the more widely accepted depression and anxiety. Women tended to minimize severity of symptoms and impact of event (perhaps as a way of coping and protecting others), displaying a strong sense of optimism and hope that life would soon return to "normal". However, it appeared this was difficult to maintain and the experience seemed to challenge relationships and roles. The findings suggest recommendations for further research with possible implications for clinical practice.     

Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic investigation

Studies have come to conflicting conclusions about whether posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with poorer memory for emotionally neutral information. The authors report a meta-analysis of 27 studies that investigated verbal and/or visual memory in samples with PTSD and healthy controls. The results indicated that the association between PTSD and memory impairment appears to be robust, small to moderate in size, and stronger for verbal than for visual memory. Effect sizes did not vary according to whether recall was immediate or delayed. The association is found in both civilian and military samples and cannot be readily explained as being due to the use of nontraumatized healthy control groups or concurrent head injury. The findings are placed in the context of recent neurobiological and experimental cognitive research.