From Wald to Savage: Homo Economicus Becomes a Bayesian Statistician

Bayesian rationality is the paradigm of rational behavior in neoclassical economics. An economic agent is deemed rational when she maximizes her subjective expected utility and consistently revises her beliefs according to Bayes's rule. The paper raises the question of how, when and why this characterization of rationality came to be endorsed by mainstream economists. Though no definitive answer is provided, it is argued that the question is of great historiographic importance. The story begins with Abraham Wald's behaviorist approach to statistics and culminates with Leonard J. Savage's elaboration of subjective expected utility theory in his 1954 classic The Foundations of Statistics. The latter's acknowledged fiasco to achieve a reinterpretation of traditional inference techniques along subjectivist and behaviorist lines raises the puzzle of how a failed project in statistics could turn into such a big success in economics. Possible answers call into play the emphasis on consistency requirements in neoclassical theory and the impact of the postwar transformation of U.S. business schools.     

What Sermons Can Tell Us

In this I essay I analyse four sermons delivered at Shan festivals that celebrates the end of the Rains Retreat (Waa). I first argue that sermons in general are important sources of information about lived Buddhism. I next provide background information necessary to understand the sermon events and the sermons. In conclusion, I compare the sermons and discuss what laypeople can learn from sermons and what we, as academics, can learn from them.     

Inattentive behaviour is associated with poor working memory and slow processing speed in very pre‐term children in middle childhood

Background. Problem behaviour is common following pre‐term birth, but the underlying nature of these difficulties is not well known. Aims. We sought to establish the mechanisms underpinning behavioural difficulties in very pre‐term (VPT) children in middle childhood by comparing their performance to that of term born peers on tasks of working memory, inhibition, and processing speed, and relating these to parent and teacher assessments of their behaviour. Particular focus was given to inattention and overactive/impulsive behaviour, as these behaviours have been associated with different neuropsychological problems in term children. Samples. A group of VPT children (gestational age < 31 weeks, N= 56) aged 9–10 years and term controls (N= 22) participated in the study. Method. Children were assessed with measures of working memory, inhibition, and processing speed. Parents and teachers reported behavioural problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and two additional scales measuring overactive/impulsive behaviour and inattention. Results. Results revealed increased rates of problem behaviour in VPT compared to term children for parent‐rated total difficulties, hyperactivity, emotional problems, peer problems, prosocial behaviour, overactive/impulsive behaviour, and parent‐ and teacher‐rated inattention. Processing speed and working memory, but not inhibition, were significantly related to inattentive and overactive/impulsive behaviour. Conclusions. The increased rates of inattention and overactive/impulsive behaviour in VPT children may be explained by impairment in processing speed and working memory. Expected links between overactive/impulsive behaviour and inhibitory control were not identified, suggesting the nature of such difficulties may be different in VPT compared to term children.     

F?rderung der Gesundheit und der psychosozialen Selbstwirksamkeit bei Langzeitarbeitslosen

Background

The development of appropriate preventive measures aimed at the promotion of psychosocial capabilities and health behavior is based on the recognition that unemployment is associated with many physical, psychological and social problems.

Objective

A group program ??promotion of health and psychosocial self-efficacy in long-term unemployed?? was developed and investigated with respect to the effectiveness by a study group at the Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine of the University of Rostock. The study was part of a project funded by the European Social Fund (ESF).

Methods

During the period from October 2009 to April 2010 the group program was implemented in 5 different groups and the sample included a total of 35 persons. To examine the effectiveness of the program the participants had to complete standardized questionnaires at the beginning and at the end of the program. Information as to what extent the unemployed suffer from mental stress was collected via the brief symptom inventory (BSI; Franke 2000). The questionnaire on resources and self-management skills (FERUS; Jack 2007) was applied to analyze the capabilities and the self-management skills of the participants.

Results

The unemployed subjects reported lower levels of aggressiveness and paranoid thinking (distrust) after their participation in the program. Regarding the self-management skills the participants improved their coping skills, self-instructions skills and also felt more hopeful with regard to their current environment and the future.

Conclusions

A systematic support of unemployed people regarding coping with the psychosocial problems associated with unemployment seemed to be important. The use of low structured group programs is a good possibility to implement them in different contexts with relatively few resources.     

Preserved fronto-striatal plasticity and enhanced procedural learning in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease overexpressing mutant hAPPswe

Mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene inducing abnormal processing and deposition of beta-amyloid protein in the brain have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although Tg2576 mice with the Swedish mutation (hAPPswe) exhibit age-related Abeta-plaque formation in brain regions like the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the cortex, these mice show a rather specific deficit in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory tasks. In view of recent findings showing that neural systems subserving different forms of learning are not simply independent but that depressing or enhancing one system affects learning in another system, we decided to investigate fronto-striatal synaptic plasticity and related procedural learning in these mutants. Fronto-striatal long-term depression (LTD) induced by tetanic stimulation of the cortico-striatal input was similar in Tg2576 and wild-type control mice. Behavioral data, however, pointed to an enhancement of procedural learning in the mutants that showed robust motor-based learning in the cross maze and higher active avoidance scores. Thus, in this mouse model of AD, an intact striatal function associated with an impaired hippocampal function seems to provide neural conditions favorable to procedural learning. Our results suggest that focusing on preserved or enhanced forms of learning in AD patients might be of interest to describe the functional reorganization of the brain when one memory system is selectively compromised by neurological disease.     

Embodiment of motor skills when observing expert and novice athletes

If people are shown a dynamic movie of an action such as kicking a soccer ball or hitting a tennis ball, they will respond to it faster if it requires the same effector. This standard congruency effect was reported to reverse when participants viewed static images of famous athletes not actually performing an action. It was suggested that the congruent response was inhibited because of a social contrast effect, based on an implied action, whereby responders viewed themselves as comparatively worse than the professional athlete. The present study recorded hand and foot responses when identifying static images of both famous and novice athletes in soccer and tennis. The action was either explicit or implied. In Experiment 1, a standard congruency effect was found for all images. In Experiment 2, when a response was based on the identity of the athlete rather than their expertise, the standard congruency effect was enhanced for images of novice athletes, but was eliminated for experts, suggesting a social contrast effect. Our study is the first to show that embodiment effects can be seen for implied and explicit action images of both novices and experts, and that static images are capable of eliciting priming effects associated with sport-relevant effector pairings.     

Influence of training on maintenance of equilibrium on a tilting platform

To assess the influence of training on the maintenance of equilibrium on a tilting platform, 13 young healthy male athletes aged 19 to 33 years were randomly divided into experimental (n=7) and control (n=6) groups. Two experimental sessions were performed before and after a specific 4-wk. training by the experimental group. Subjects stood upright on a tilting platform. The athletes were asked to maintain the platform as horizontal as possible during a 30-sec. test. The three-dimensional movements of the platform versus the ground were recorded by using a computerized optoelectronic digitiser. The platform plane was calculated and its directrix computed. The area of oscillation and instantaneous angular velocity of the directrix at standardized height were calculated. In both groups the area of oscillation and the angular velocity were reduced in Session 2, but the reduction was significant only in the experimental group. Specific training can significantly improve skill at maintaining equilibrium in young healthy sport performers.     

Flow and enjoyment beyond skill-demand balance: The role of game pacing curves and personality

According to flow theory, skill-demand balance is optimal for flow. Experimentally, balance has been tested only against strong overload and strong boredom. We assessed flow and enjoyment as distinct experiences and expected that they (a) are not optimized by constant balance, (b) experimentally dissociate, and (c) are supported by different personality traits. Beyond a constant balance condition (“balance”), we realized two dynamic pacing conditions where demands fluctuated through short breaks: one condition without overload (“dynamic medium”) and another with slight overload (“dynamic high”). Consistent with assumptions, constant balance was not optimal for flow (balance ≤ dynamic medium < dynamic high) and enjoyment (balance ≤ dynamic high < dynamic medium). Action orientation enabled high flow even under the suboptimal condition of balance. Sensation seeking increased enjoyment under the suboptimal but arousing dynamic high condition. We discuss dynamic changes in positive affect (seeking and mastering challenge) as an integral part of flow.     

Kombination von Settings und Verfahren in der Psychotherapie

Literature research and own clinical experiences confirm the significance of a combined use of settings and methods in the area of inpatient and outpatient psychotherapy. For inpatient treatment, the combined use of methods, such as individual psychotherapy, group therapy, creative therapies, and sport, are an essential part of the treatment. In outpatient treatment, the regulations of the German insurance do not permit such combinations. Nevertheless, they occur and are often proactively initiated by the patients. The various combined use of psychotherapy and psychotropics is very well studied, but also the combination of settings, i.e. supplementary inpatient treatment, day treatment, and outpatient treatment have to be considered. While administering their therapies, psychotherapists should keep in mind possibly concurrently ongoing treatments as well as former therapies and their effects on the patients. With the exception of combinations with psychotropic treatment, there exist almost no empirical data in this important field.