AN ANALYSIS OF THE REINFORCING PROPERTIES OF HAND MOUTHING

Hand mouthing often has been described as a stereotypic response that is maintained by non-social (automatic) reinforcement; however, data supporting this conclusion can be found in relatively few studies. This series of studies presents an experimental analysis of conditions associated with the maintenance of hand mouthing. In Experiment 1, a functional analysis was conducted for 12 individuals who engaged in chronic hand mouthing to determine whether the behavior is usually maintained independent of social contingencies. Results obtained for 10 subjects were consistent with an automatic reinforcement hypothesis; the remaining 2 subjects' hand mouthing was maintained by social-positive reinforcement. Based on these results, Experiment 2 was designed to identify the specific reinforcing properties of hand mouthing. Each of 4 subjects was provided with a toy that substituted for hand mouthing, and preference for a specific topography of toy manipulation (hand-toy contact or mouth-toy contact) was measured. Results indicated that hand stimulation was the predominant reinforcer for all subjects. Experiment 3 provided an extension of Experiment 2 in that the same responses were measured across a variety of toys presented to each of 5 subjects. Results again indicated that hand stimulation was the predominant reinforcer for all subjects. Implications of these results are discussed with relevance to treatment.     

Brief report: Validation of a reinforcer survey for use with geriatric patients

This paper describes a Geriatric Reinforcer Survey (GRS) which expands upon a previous Reinforcement Survey Schedule (RSS) developed by Cautela and Kastenbaum (1967). The GRS, an instrument designed to quickly assess reinforcer preference in geriatric populations, has two formats, one for individuals over 65 years of age who are still able to comprehend and write, and one designed to be filled out by relatives and staff familiar with an individual over 65 years of age who can no longer comprehend or write well. Reinforcer preference was determined by giving the GRS to a total of 107 geriatric persons in both home and institutional settings. Test-retest reliability was assessed on a subsample of 71 individuals over a 10-14-day period and was found to be r_s = 0.608, p <0.01 using the Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient. This indicated that the GRS had reasonable test-retest reliability. The validity of having a relative or familiar staff person fill out the GRS for a specific individual was also tested. Results of 43 administrations of the GRS to relatives of a geriatric person, using the Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient, showed a correlation of r_s = 0.488, p <0.01 when the responses of that person were compared to those of the individual. Results of 17 administrations of the GRS to staff familiar with a particular patient were r_s = 0.436, p < 0.05 when compared to responses made by the individual. This indicates that the GRS might be useful in structuring interventions for individuals who are incapacitated, and groups of geriatric persons. The GRS also has the potential to be a valuable research tool.     

Young Children Use Letter Names in Learning to Read Words

Three studies demonstrated that mental simulations and affect are related to temporal changes in subjective confidence. In Study 1, students' confidence in their midterm exam performance lessened from the first day of class (3.5 weeks before the exam) to exam day, and confidence correlated negatively with upward simulations (i.e., simulations that are better than reality) and negative affect. In Study 2, manipulated upward simulations produced low confidence and negative mood even when the exam was viewed from a distance; students who were forced to think about upward simulations 1 month prior to the exam felt no more confident than did students on exam day. In Study 3, manipulated negative moods produced low confidence and more upward simulations when students anticipated laboratory tasks, and again distal and proximal confidence did not differ. Discussion centers around reciprocal relations between mental simulations and affect, and a possibly integrative account of previous explanations.     

Relational-developmental therapy group for postnatal depression

Postnatal depression has been estimated to affect as many as 30% of childbearing women. Emerging evidence offers reason to believe that psychoanalytically-oriented group treatment may be beneficial for some women with postnatal depression. This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of one model of analytic group therapy for this clinical population. Our findings suggest that the women had a positive response to the group treatment. The particulars of the psychoanalytic group approach, here referred to as relational-developmental, are described in detail and an analysis is offered about why this approach may be beneficial. Also discussed are limitations of the research design and suggestions for studying a relational-developmental group-centered prevention program for children at-risk from postnatal depression.     

Validation of the Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale (BADS) in a Community Sample with Elevated Depressive Symptoms

The Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale (BADS) was previously developed to measure changes in avoidance and activation over the course of Behavioral Activation for depression. Initial scale development, definition of the factor structure and confirmation of the factor structure was performed with a non-depressed undergraduate sample. These prior results revealed four factors (Activation, Avoidance/Rumination, Work/School Impairment, and Social Impairment) with good factor structure, internal consistency, and test–retest reliability. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the psychometric properties, factor structure and construct validity of the BADS with a community sample with elevated depressive symptoms (N = 193). Results indicated good psychometric properties, additional evidence for construct validity of the total scale and subscales, and adequate fit of the data to the original factor structure. Normative data are also provided separately for depressed men and women, and for Caucasians and African Americans.     

Children of Probationers in the Child Welfare System and Their Families

This study describes changes over a 36-month period in the lives of children of probationers who were subjects of reports of maltreatment. Data on a nationally representative sample of reported victims of maltreatment were used to examine probationer-parents’ contact with the criminal justice system, and concurrent changes in their children’s households, risk exposure, and emotional and behavioral problems. Results show that 36 months after coming in contact with the child welfare system, about 40% of probationer’s children no longer lived with their probationer-parents. During the same period, children’s exposure to risk (i.e., parental substance abuse, mental illness, and domestic violence) dropped markedly; however, there was an upward trend in the prevalence of child emotional and behavioral problems. These problems ultimately declined among very young children, but persisted among elementary school age children. Further prospective studies are needed to better understand the confluence of factors affecting the outcomes of probationers’ children.     

Smoking in movies, implicit associations of smoking with the self, and intentions to smoke

We examined whether identifying with a film character who smokes increases implicit associations of the self with smoking. Undergraduate men were randomly assigned to view film clips in which the male protagonist either smoked or did not smoke. We measured subsequent levels of self-smoking associations using a reaction time task, as well as self-reported beliefs about smoking and smokers. Greater identification with the smoking protagonist predicted stronger implicit associations between the self and smoking (for both smokers and nonsmokers) and increased intention to smoke (among the smokers). Stronger implicit self-smoking associations uniquely predicted increases in smokers' intentions to smoke, over and above the effects of explicit beliefs about smoking. The results provide evidence that exposure to smoking in movies is causally related to changes in smoking-related thoughts, that identification with protagonists is an important feature of narrative influence, and that implicit measures may be useful in predicting deliberative behavior.