风险决策过程验证：补偿/非补偿模型之争的新认识与新证据

风险决策是人类赖以生存和发展的重大决策。如何进行风险决策是人类不断认识和改造世界过程中遇到的未解之谜。主流风险理论认为, 风险决策是一个补偿性的、期望值最大化的过程; 而非主流的风险理论则认为, 风险决策是非补偿性的, 并不遵循期望法则所假设的加权求和等过程。这一谜团为何一直没有得以破解, 或许是因为我们未找到揭示其心理过程的令人信服的证据。近10年来, 我们针对风险决策过程, 借助行为实验、眼动记录法、事件相关电位、功能磁共振成像等技术, 系统探索风险决策的心理和神经机制, 为回答“风险决策是否遵循补偿性规则”这一问题提供了汇聚性证据。本文依据期望法则所假设的概率函数推导、加权过程、加权求和过程、总分最大化等步骤, 对这些研究进行梳理与回顾, 以期加深人们对风险决策机制的理解, 并为建立、健全与风险决策相关的政策、法律法规提供理论依据。     

吃亏是福：择“值”选项而获真利

主流决策理论认为人们当遵从个人利益最大化原则, 基于“价” (value)做选择—— 挑选能直接给自己带来最大获益的选项。但决策者实际上经常会基于“值” (worth)做选择—— 挑选令自己当下吃亏或损失的选项, 并认为“值得”。为探索选择吃亏的选项究竟“值”在何处, 研究1利用情境实验操纵“基于‘值’选择”, 发现选择表面吃亏的“值”选项反而能给个体带来更大的延迟获益。研究2a采用归纳法, 确定了吃亏选项会在“惠、善、义、法” 4个潜在维度上被决策者赋予更大的“值”; 研究2b利用测量4个潜在维度的情境测验, 以销售群体的销售绩效和主观幸福感为真实获益的衡量指标, 验证了“基于‘值’选择”与现实生活中的物质和精神获益间存在正向的线性预测关系。研究首次为中国文化中的“吃亏是福”提供了实证证据的支持, 揭示诱使人们选择吃亏选项的是“后福”—— 赋在潜在维度上的延迟获益。     

What makes a meaningful life? Examining the effects of interpersonal harmony,dialectical coping,and nonattachment

Past cross‐cultural research on well‐being has tended to base Eastern construction of well‐being on the interdependent self‐construal, mainly as an offshoot of Confucius relationalism. However, other influential philosophical traditions in East Asian societies (i.e., Taoism and Buddhism) that portray a different picture of well‐being have received scant scholarly attention. We aim to foreground the distinctiveness of three well‐being constructs salient to Chinese culture, namely, interpersonal harmony, dialectical coping, and nonattachment, by providing experimental evidence on their differential effects on perceived meaning in life. Participants were 173 Taiwanese college students. Using priming procedures, participants primed with interpersonal harmony and dialectical coping reported higher levels of meaning in life as compared to those in the nonattachment and neutral control conditions. In addition, comparisons among the three well‐being constructs revealed that although the effects of interpersonal harmony and dialectical coping on meaning in life were similar in strength, they were both significantly stronger than that of nonattachment. The findings attest to the importance of recognizing within‐culture differences when conducting research on well‐being. Results were considered in terms of their methodological and theoretical implications.     

多元文化经历促进创造力

大量实证研究支持了多元文化经历促进创造力这一假设。深度参与两种不一致的文化活动是多元文化经历提升创造力的前提条件; 在融合过程中, 双重认同者获得的交替、整合和包含等认知技能, 促进了个体的创造性表现。未来可以采用更具多样性的样本以扩展研究的外部效度, 考察认知评价、趋近动机、积极情绪的中介作用, 并加强国内对此领域的研究。     

阅读材料的呈现方式对儿童阅读活动的影响

本研究采用传统印刷文本、普通电子文本和超文本导航模式考察阅读材料的呈现方式对儿童阅读活动的影响.研究结果表明:(1)在三种呈现方式条件下,高阅读水平者的阅读成绩显著优于低水平者;女生成绩显著优于男生;(2)阅读材料的不同呈现方式对儿童阅读理解无显著影响;(3)在三种呈现方式中,儿童对超文本的正向评价要优于传统印刷文本和普通电子文本.这表明大部分儿童可以在短时间内接受,并熟悉非线性文本方式.     

Phonological awareness in young Chinese children

Two studies explored the nature of phonological awareness (PA) in Chinese. In Study 1, involving 146 children, awareness of phoneme onset did not differ from chance levels at ages 3-5 years in preschool but increased to 70% correct in first grade, when children first received phonological coding (Pinyin) instruction. Similarly, tone awareness was at better than chance levels from second year kindergarten (age 4), but increased strongly and significantly in first grade to 74% accuracy. In contrast, syllable and rime awareness increased gradually and steadily across ages 3-6 years. Patterns suggest different influences of age and literacy instruction for different PA levels. In Study 2, involving 202 preschoolers, variance in Chinese character recognition was best explained by tasks of syllable awareness, tone awareness, and speeded naming. Findings underscore the unique importance of both tone and syllable for early character acquisition in Chinese children.     

厌而避额外之“利”；喜而趋额外之“害”

趋利避害是生物的本能。《管子·禁藏》云：夫凡人之情, 见利莫能勿就, 见害莫能勿避。“两利相权取其重, 两害相权取其轻”是规范性决策理论的一基本原则。本研究以金钱作为奖赏或惩罚刺激, 检验人们能否理性地遵循“价值最大化”原则。在实验中, 主试以检查硬币生产年代的数目为由, 让被试逐枚地感受两个金钱序列：10元硬币序列(由20枚五角硬币组成)和10.3元硬币序列(由20枚五角硬币和3枚一角硬币组成),随后评定获得(或损失)各金钱序列的高兴(或不高兴)程度, 并从中选择一金钱序列(与硬币等值的金钱)作为其奖赏(或惩罚)。实验为2 (3枚一角硬币在序列首vs. 3枚一角硬币在序列尾)´2(先检查10元硬币序列vs. 先检查10.3元硬币序列)´2(损失vs. 获得)三因素设计, 每种条件随机分配15名商学院学生被试。结果表明, 被试倾向选择获益少(10元)和损失多(-10.3元)的金钱序列; 且获益大(10.3元)时高兴程度小, 损失小(-10元)时不高兴程度大。这一结果意味着：“聊”并不胜于“无”,反而是“无”胜于“聊”。其中, 伴随着违背价值最大化原则所产生的情感亦有悖逻辑。负性情感的引发一般有其“逻辑正确”的原因(如, 无惠而不乐); 而引发本研究负性情感的原因实属“逻辑错误”(如, 惠多而不乐)。这种不曾被定义而类似于“冤”的情感不仅见于个人,也见于民族、国家间的持续交往, 值得进一步研究。     

医疗价格过度增长的管制原因分析

医疗服务的准公共产品特征说明医疗价格问题不能完全由市场来解决,政府必须对医疗价格进行管制。造成医疗价格高昂的原因是多样的和复杂的,基于对医疗价格的政府管制现状分析,认为对医疗价格的管制不善,是导致中国高昂医疗价格的原因之一,并且提出了对医疗价格进行管制的制度框架。     

Reading proficiency modulates parafoveal processing efficiency: Evidence from reading Chinese as a second language

In the present study, we manipulated different types of information available in the parafovea during the reading of Chinese sentences and examined how native Korean readers who learned Chinese as a second language make use of the parafoveal information. Results clearly indicate that, only identical and orthographically similar previews facilitated processing of the target words when they were subsequently fixated. More critically, more parafoveal information was obtained by subjects with higher reading proficiency. These results suggest that, mainly low-level features of the parafoveal words are obtained by the non-native Chinese readers and less attentional resources are available for the readers with lower reading proficiency, thereby causing a reduction of the perceptual span.