Sunk cost: pigeons (Columba livia), too, show bias to complete a task rather than shift to another

The sunk cost effect involves the bias to stay with an alternative because one has already invested resources, even when there is a better alternative available. In a series of experiments, at various points during a 30-peck requirement, pigeons (Columba livia) could choose between completing the response requirement (at a different location in Experiment 1 or the same location in Experiments 3 and 4) and switching to a constant number of pecks. In three experiments, the pigeons showed a bias to complete the pecks already started, even when that required more pecking. We also demonstrated that the bias depended on the initial investment and was not produced merely because the pigeons preferred a variable alternative over a fixed alternative. The deviation from optimal choice suggests that pigeons show a bias similar to the sunk cost effect in humans.     

Rational Imagination and Modal Knowledge

How do we know what's (metaphysically) possible and impossible? Arguments from Kripke and Putnam suggest that possibility is not merely a matter of (coherent) conceivability/imaginability. For example, we can coherently imagine that Hesperus and Phosphorus are distinct objects even though they are not possibly distinct. Despite this apparent problem, we suggest, nevertheless, that imagination plays an important role in an adequate modal epistemology. When we discover what is possible or what is impossible, we generally exploit important connections between what is possible and what we can coherently imagine. We can often come to knowledge of metaphysical modality a priori.     

Finding a face in a face-like object

Humans have the tendency to perceive a face even in a non-living object. Previous studies report that people perceive facial features and even interpret a personality in a car front. Following these findings, we investigated whether the perception of a face in a face-like object is mediated by human face processing, which involves both featural and configural processing. In our experiment, participants were presented with 30 face-like objects and were asked about the existence of facial features, the intensity of typicality/distinctiveness, and the intensity of facial expression. Using multiple regression analysis, which predicts the perception of a face in a face-like object, we found that the existence of eyes was a significant predictor of variance in perceiving a face in a face-like object.     

Pigeons can discriminate “good” and “bad” paintings by children

Humans have the unique ability to create art, but non-human animals may be able to discriminate “good” art from “bad” art. In this study, I investigated whether pigeons could be trained to discriminate between paintings that had been judged by humans as either “bad” or “good”. To do this, adult human observers first classified several children’s paintings as either “good” (beautiful) or “bad” (ugly). Using operant conditioning procedures, pigeons were then reinforced for pecking at “good” paintings. After the pigeons learned the discrimination task, they were presented with novel pictures of both “good” and “bad” children’s paintings to test whether they had successfully learned to discriminate between these two stimulus categories. The results showed that pigeons could discriminate novel “good” and “bad” paintings. Then, to determine which cues the subjects used for the discrimination, I conducted tests of the stimuli when the paintings were of reduced size or grayscale. In addition, I tested their ability to discriminate when the painting stimuli were mosaic and partial occluded. The pigeons maintained discrimination performance when the paintings were reduced in size. However, discrimination performance decreased when stimuli were presented as grayscale images or when a mosaic effect was applied to the original stimuli in order to disrupt spatial frequency. Thus, the pigeons used both color and pattern cues for their discrimination. The partial occlusion did not disrupt the discriminative behavior suggesting that the pigeons did not attend to particular parts, namely upper, lower, left or right half, of the paintings. These results suggest that the pigeons are capable of learning the concept of a stimulus class that humans name “good” pictures. The second experiment showed that pigeons learned to discriminate watercolor paintings from pastel paintings. The subjects showed generalization to novel paintings. Then, as the first experiment, size reduction test, grayscale test, mosaic processing test and partial occlusion test were carried out. The results suggest that the pigeons used both color and pattern cues for the discrimination and show that non-human animals, such as pigeons, can be trained to discriminate abstract visual stimuli, such as pictures and may also have the ability to learn the concept of “beauty” as defined by humans.     

The effect of marker size on the perception of an empty interval

Research shows that the time that is spent perceiving a brief visual stimulus is experienced as increasing as the size of the stimulus increases. We examined whether the experienced duration of time that is spent attending the perception of an empty interval—demarcated by the offset of one marker and the onset of a second marker— depends on the size of the markers themselves. Previous theories predict that the perceived time that is spent viewing offset-to-onset intervals decreases as the size of the markers increases, and that the perceived time that is spent viewing the markers increases. We demonstrated that empty intervals between the presentations of large markers were perceived to be longer in duration than those occurring between the presentations of small markers, and that the second marker was critical to this effect of physical size on apparent duration. We report that the size effect disappeared when the interval was filled with the presentation of a circle, and we conclude that the intensity of the second marker altered perceptions in an empty-interval-specific manner.     

Measurement of visual memory span by means of the recall of dot-in-matrix patterns

A method for the study of visual memory span is described. The results of two dot-in-matrix experiments indicated that the patterns of larger matrix size were more difficult to recall, but the effect of visual angle was not significant. Visual memory span could be represented by the number of dota in the 5 by 6 or 6 by 6 pattern that a subject perfectly recalled with a probability of .5, since the proportion of recalled patterns was a monotonie decreasing function of the number of dots. This method can be used in group experiments without consideration of the differences in visual angles caused by the locations of subjects. The selection of appropriate presentation times and the distinction between verbal and visual memory spans are discussed.     

Quantitative and structural factors in the judgment of pattern complexity

The processes underlying judgment of pattern complexity were investigated using patterns containing eight dots in a 4 × 4 matrix. Thirty-two subjects rated the complexity of 140 patterns that were taken from patterns generated by 12 other subjects in a preliminary experiment. Factor analysis of mean complexity ratings and 12 physical variables, which objectively described configuration of dots, revealed a “quantitative factor” and a “structural factor.” Mean complexity loaded on both factors. Multiple regression analysis showed that the mean complexity was well predicted by combination of a quantitative variable with a structural variable. Analysis of individual data also suggested that individual differences in complexity judgment could be explained by the weights on these two factors. In addition, a rating experiment was carried out in which 60 patterns were presented in limited stimulus durations (50 msec, 200 msec, 1 sec, or 4 sec). The quantitative variables were highly correlated with the complexity ratings in all conditions, whereas the structural variables affected the ratings in long durations but not in short durations. These results support the view that visual complexity is judged through two processes: One is a fast process that evaluates quantitative aspects in a stimulus pattern, and the other is a slow process that detects the structure in the pattern.     

Reduction of the flash-lag effect in terms of active observation

In the present study, we investigated how observers’ control of stimulus change affects temporal and spatial aspects of visual perception. We compared the illusory flash-lag effects for automatic movement of the stimulus with stimulus movement that was controlled by the observers’ active manipulation of a computer mouse (Experiments 1, 2, and 5), a keyboard (Experiment 3), or a trackball (Experiment 4). We found that the flash-lag effect was significantly reduced when the observer was familiar with the directional relationship between the mouse movement and stimulus movement on a front parallel display (Experiments 1 and 2) and that, although the unfamiliar directional relationship between the mouse movement and stimulus movement increased the flash-lag effect at the beginning of the experimental session, the repetitive observation with the same unfamiliar directional relationship reduced the flash-lag effect (Experiment 5). We found no consistent reduction of the flash-lag effect with the use of a keyboard or a trackball (Experiments 3 and 4). These results suggest that the learning of a specific directional relationship between a proprioceptive signal of hand movements and a visual signal of stimulus movements is necessary for the reduction of the flash-lag effect.     

Making a case for case studies in psychotherapy training: A small step towards establishing an empirical basis for psychotherapy training

The evidence debate in psychotherapy pays little attention to developing an evidence base for training practices. Understanding effective training requires an examination of what makes training work. This article examines the role of case studies in psychotherapy training. This has not been articulated explicitly or researched systematically in spite of its cardinal importance. An analysis of the role of case studies in psychotherapy training is presented. Reading, watching, or hearing about cases can offer novice psychotherapists access to a closed world; access to psychological theory in action; access to whole courses of therapy; access to different approaches; access to significant moments; access to the therapeutic relationship; access to a wide range of client types; access to working in different contexts; and the opportunity of identifying with therapists and clients. Writing or presenting cases offer students the opportunity of: learning to integrate information into a relevant whole; being in the ‘hot seat’; learning to give appropriate feedback; assessing the validity of interpretations, inferences, and interventions; adapting methods to suit the client; and learning to collaborate with other professionals. The paper presents directions for future research into psychotherapy training, specifically proposing an international survey of training practices at psychotherapy training institutions.