Teleology for the Perplexed: How Matter Began to Matter

Lacking a plausible model for the emergence of telos (purposive, representational, and evaluative relationships, as in life and consciousness) from simple material and energetic processes, the sciences operate as though all teleological relationships are physically epiphenomenal. Alternatively, in religion and the humanities it is assumed either that telos influences the material world from an outside or transcendental source or that it is a fundamental and ineffable property of things. We argue that a scientifically sound and intuitively plausible model for the physical emergence of teleological dynamics is now realizable. A methodology for formulating such a model and an exemplar case—the autocell—are presented. An autocell is an autocatalytic set of molecules that produce one another and also produce molecules that spontaneously accrete to form a hollow container, analogous to the way virus capsules form. The molecular capsules that result will spontaneously enclose some of the nearby molecules of the autocatalytic set, keeping them together so that when the autocell is broken open autocatalysis will resume. Autocells are thus self-reconstituting, self-reproducing, and minimally evolvable. They are not living and yet have necessary precursor attributes to telos, including individuality, functional interdependence of parts, end-directedness, a minimal form of representation, and a normative (evaluational) relationship to different environmental properties. The autocell thus serves as a missing link between inanimate (nonlife) and animate (living) phenomena. We conclude by discussing the challenges that a natural origin for telos poses for religious thought.     

Socioenvironmental experiences,self-esteem,and emotional/behavioral problems in early adolescence

Tested the role of self-esteem as a mediator of relationships between socioenvironmental experiences and emotional/behavioral problems using a sample of 215 young adolescents (Grades 7–9). Socioenvironmental experiences were assessed using self-report questionnaire measures of social support and major and minor stressful events. Self-esteem was assessed using a self-report questionnaire, an interview, and a parent-report questionnaire. Emotional/behavioral problems were assessed using self-report, parent-report and teacherreport questionnaires. Utilizing structural equation modeling, the data were used to test a model in which self-esteem mediated the relationship between socioenvironmental experiences and emotional/behavioral problems. The hypothesized model provided a reasonably good fit to the data (normed fit index=.90). However, an alternative model which also allowed for direct effects of socioenvironmental experiences on emotional/behavioral problems produced a significant improvement in model fit. In this model, socio-environmental experiences had significant effects on emotional problems via both direct effects and indirect effects that indicated a mediating role for self-esteem. Only direct effects of socioenvironmental experiences were evident for behavioral problems. This research was supported by a grant to the first author from the University of Missouri Research Board. Thanks are due to the students, staff, and parents of the Columbia Public Schools, Columbia, Missouri, for their participation in and support of this research project.     

Women physicians as teachers,administrators, and researchers in medical and surgical specialties: Kanter versus “Avis” as competing hypotheses

According to Kanter and others, when women represent a very small proportion of a profession their performance will be affected—tokens often are afraid of achieving outstanding performance. On the other hand, rather than small proportions lowering role performance, perhaps the Avis syndrome operates; perhaps women who enter male professions try harder as they perceive that they are on trial. The present study tests the relation between percentage of women in 17 medical and surgical specialities and percentage of women within each specialty who select the nontraditional roles of teacher, administrator, and researcher [as contrasted to practitioner]. Neither the Kanter hypothesis of direct relationship, nor the Avis hypothesis of inverse relationship was supported. Results indicated that women physicians tend most likely to be overrepresented as teachers and underrepresented as administrators, regardless of their proportion in the specialty. The most powerful position of administrator is primarily occupied by male physicians; perhaps even in medicine, teaching remains a traditional role for women.     

SOCIAL VALIDATION OF COMPONENT BEHAVIORS OF FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS,ACCEPTING CRITICISM,AND NEGOTIATING

This study evaluated whether behaviors often taught as part of social skills training are judged favorably by others. Community judges evaluated the performances of people in various situations requiring one of three social skills: following instructions, accepting criticism, and negotiating to resolve conflicts. These skills were displayed in videotaped scenes by actors with and without mental retardation who acted out roles that had different types of authority relationships, and when different components or clusters of behavior (nonverbal, specific verbal, or general verbal behaviors) were performed well or poorly. The highest ratings by judges were of videotaped scenes that depicted correct use of all behaviors, regardless of which skill was being examined, whether or not the actor had mental retardation, or what the relationship was between the two actors. The lowest ratings were of videotaped scenes that depicted poor performance of all behaviors, and intermediate ratings were obtained when only some of the behaviors were performed poorly. These results, as well as the verbal responses of judges to questions, indicated that the different behaviors commonly used in teaching the skills of following instructions, accepting criticism, and negotiating are relevant to judgment of social performance, and are likely to be reinforced and maintained by social contingencies.     

Parallals between attitudes and traits as predictors of behavior

Both attitudes and traits have served as within-person constructs intended to permit the prediction of later behavior. Despite this similarity, research in the two domains has tended to progress in a relatively independent fashion. A number of parallels between the attitude and trait literature are noted with regard to definitions of the constructs and their utility as predictors of behavior. Parallels with respect to the identification of variables that moderate the attitude-behavior and trait-behavior relation are also discussed, as are similarities in the potential processes by which attitudes and traits guide behavior. It is concluded that the parallels are so extensive that research in each domain would benefit from an increased exchange of theory, methods, and findings.     

INSTRUCTIONS,FEEDBACK, PRAISE,BONUS PAYMENTS,AND TEACHER BEHAVIOR1

The study was conducted within a training and demonstration center for teachers from several different school districts. The teachers staffing the center were employees of the host school district who volunteered to serve in the center. Unfortunately, these volunteers did not always use the program materials appropriately and therefore did not always provide clear models for visiting teachers. In particular, four of the volunteer teachers did not always instruct their students from the appropriate reading text, even when encouraged to do so by the principal of the school in which the center was located. Various procedures were employed to alter this situation. The experimenter, (associate director of the training and demonstration center) provided instructions, feedback, and praise regarding use of the appropriate reading text. These procedures had clear effects with only one teacher. Then, merit or bonus payments were provided for teachers who used the appropriate reading text for criterion periods of time; a procedure that was very effective with all four teachers. The problem worked on in this study is typical of those faced by workers in public institutions where change cannot be brought about by the researcher's authority. All teachers in the present study had the necessary skills to demonstrate accurately the prescribed program procedures, but they did not always do so until the bonus payment was used. Although the bonus payment procedure might be inappropriate in some school situations, the procedure could easily be adjusted to accommodate the established practices of many schools. For example, establishment of explicit performance criterion and use of in-service stipends for meeting criterion performance during school hours, rather than attendance at meetings after school, might well be comparably effective.     

Effects of initial request size and timing of a second request on compliance: the foot in the door and the door in the face.

A field experiment tested four separate procedures for influencing compliance to the second of two requests. Two factors--size of initial request and timing of the second request--were included in a 2 X 2 factorial design. Subjects were induced either to comply with a small initial request or to refuse a large initial request. They then received a moderate request either immediately (no delay) or 7--10 days later (delay). Compliance to the second request was the dependent measure. The results in the two delay conditions and the small-request--no delay condition supported a self-perception position in that the induction of one kind of behavior (compliance or noncompliance) carried over to affect subsequent behavior similarly. The large-request--no dealy condition supported a bargaining explanation, as initial refusal to comply led to an increase in subsequent compliance. Possible processes that could account for these results are discussed.     

Use and analysis of the "Good Behavior Game" to reduce disruptive classroom behavior

A recent study reported procedures (the "good behavior game") for reducing disruptive classroom behavior. Replication of the procedures of the "good behavior game" in two classrooms showed it to be an effective technique for reducing disruptive talking and out-of-seat behavior. Further experimental analysis indicated that the effective components of the game were division of the class into teams, consequences for a team winning the game, and criteria set for winning the game. Although disruptive behavior was markedly reduced by the game, the reductions were correlated with only slightly improved accuracy of academic performance in the one classroom where academic performance was measured.