The relationship among sex-role stereotyping,sex-role preference,and the sex difference in spatial visualization

At an early age, children attain concepts of sex-appropriate activities, behaviors, attitudes, and goals, i.e., sex-role stereotypes. These conceptual stereotypes seem to assign a less favorable role to females. Thus it seems plausible that their acceptance (by both sexes) might be at least partly responsible for the performance differences that begin to arise in adolescence and adulthood. In view of the importance of early adolescence as a transitional period during which sex-role requirements are augmented and intellectual sex differences emerge, 105 11-year-olds and 102 14-year-olds were selected as subjects. Their spatial abilities, sex-role concepts, and sex-role preferences were assessed. Stereotyping sex roles (in general) was not associated with spatial performance; stereotyping sex roles that included information regarding subjects' views about intellectual competence was related to performance. The sex difference in spatial ability that emerged at age 14 was among subjects with own-sex preferences only; there were no sex differences among subjects who preferred to be boys.This article is based upon a doctoral dissertation presented to the Department of Psychology of Columbia University. The author would like to express her thanks to her advisers, Phillip Shaver and Deanna Kuhn; to her committee members, Robert Krauss, Norma Graham, Patrick Lee, and Wayne Proudfoot; to Carol Jacklin and Ruth Wylie for their advice and support; and to Flora Churnin, Douglas Churnin, and Carl Nash for their invaluable assistance during all phases of this study.     

Behavioral treatment of obesity: a two-year follow-up

Data obtained from a two-year follow-up of 10 obese women treated via behavioral methods is presented. Failure to obtain lasting results was noted, and reasons for this failure suggested. Implications of these data for investigators in the area of obesity were discussed.A review of the recent literature indicates a number of studies with encouraging results obtained via the behavioral treatment of obesity (Hall and Hall, unpublished). However, long-term follow-up data are generally lacking. This lack of long-term data is especially troublesome in the area of obesity. With regard to traditional treatment methods, such as drugs, psychotherapy, and nutritional counseling, it has generally been noted that those overweight individuals who complete a course of treatment, and who lose weight, regain the weight lost (Stunkard and McClaren-Hume, 1958) Within the literature on the behavioral treatment of obesity, only one study (Stuart, 1967) has provided weight data for as long as 1 year after initiation of treatment Stuart's data indicated a gradual loss of weight over the year. However, these data did not reflect S's ability to control weight following termination of treatment, for during the year, follow-up sessions were scheduled monthly, and thus, therapist contact was available.The present paper, in an attempt to fill the need for long-term follow-up data, presents data obtained 2 years after the termination of a behavioral treatment program. None of the Ss had been in contact with the therapist since the termination of the study 2 years earlier.     

Teacher attitudes toward educational and psychological services for conduct problem children

Ninety-nine teachers participated in a survey designed to assess teacher attitudes toward and experience with a variety of strategies for dealing with conduct problem children in regular classes. Results indicated that (a) a majority of teachers favored placing conduct problem children in regular rather than special classes; (b) current sources of assistance (school psychologists, clinical psychologists, principals, parents, and other teachers) were uniformly perceived as only slightly effective in helping teachers handle problem children; and (c) of 14 alternative educational and psychological assistance delivery strategies, teachers most frequently preferred smaller classes, teacher aides, increased counseling staff, and resource classrooms.This study was funded as part of Grant No. OEG-0-71-2872 from the U.S. Office of Education. The opinions expressed in this paper are in no way intended to reflect those of the granting agency. The suggestions of Marlene Schneider, Eleanor Wilcox, Ruth Shepard, and Susan O'Leary were extremely helpful in the initial formulation of the questionnaire used in this study. The authors are further indebted to Kenneth Kaufman, Marvin R. Goldfried, Leonard Krasner, Lillian Stevens, W. E. Hedley, and R. Mullaney for allowing us to use their continuing education courses as the sources of our sample of teachers, and to the many teachers who completed the questionnaire.     

When a bystander becomes an accomplice: Situational determinants of reactions to dishonesty

In a series of experiments, undergraduates (N = 288) performed a task with a confederate who subsequently lied about his or her performance in order to obtain a cash bonus. The probability of bystanders' reporting the dishonesty and refusing to sign a document attesting to the confederate's score was differentially affected by situational factors and sex of the bystander, wrongdoer, and authority figure. Bystanders were most apt to report the misdeed when they were competing against rather than working either independently or cooperatively with the culprit, at least when the bonus was provided by a large corporation. In addition, females were more likely than males to report when the victim was another person rather than either a corporation or the bystander himself, and both sexes were more apt to report a female wrongdoer than a male one. Persons who initially reported the misdeed were less likely to become active accomplices than were those who failed to report it. Furthermore, less written verification of the falsehood occurred when (a) nonreporters were performing independently rather than either competing against or working cooperatively with the culprit for the bonus, and (b) a male was in an immediate position of authority.     

The use of self-efficacy scaling in training student clinicians: Implications for working with stutterers

A scaling technique developed by Bandura for determining an individual's personal performance expectations (self efficacy) was applied to student clinicians working with stutterers. The self-efficacy scores of clinicians conducting treatment increased significantly while the scores of clinicians without treatment experience showed no significant change. As the student clinicians gained clinical experience there appeared to be a corresponding reduction in fear and avoidance of the treatment situation. Clinician fear concerning stuttering treatment appeared to have little relation to performance in treatment as rated by supervisors. The results indicate that self-efficacy scaling may be used to indicate clinician avoidance of working with stuttering clients.     

Psychological reactance and the attractiveness of unobtainable objects: Sex differences in children's responses to an elimination of freedom

This study examined possible sex and age differences in children's perceptions of the attractiveness of unobtainable and obtained objects. Using an experimental paradigm developed by Hammock and J. Brehm (1966), half of the male and female first-grade and sixth-grade subjects were led to expect to choose between two objects; the other half were told they would be given one of two objects, but were not led to expect to choose between these objects. After subjects ranked an array of 10 objects, all subjects were given their third-ranked object and denied their fourth-ranked object. No subject was given any opportunity to indicate a preference or make a choice between these two alternatives. As predicted, subjects' subsequent rankings of the objects differed according to sex. Male subjects behaved in accordance with theoretical predictions based on J. Brehm's theory of psychological reactance and, thus, replicated the results obtained by Hammock and Brehm. The behavior of female subjects did not conform to the reactance theory model. No age differences were predicted and none were obtained. The implications of these results for predicting whether an unobtainable object will become more or less attractive, and for the nature and extent of sex differences in children's responses to the loss of behavioral freedoms, are discussed.     

The therapeutic nature of confessions

Since Janet and Freud, confessions have been a vital part of the psychoanalytic armamentarium. While confessions were originally cast primarily in oedipal terms, this paper examines confessions in the light of recent developments in self psychology and object relations. The central thesis presented is that confessions contribute both to the development of self-identity and to the strengthening of object relations. Clinical and literary examples are used to illustrate how individuals who choose to confess are redeemed and transformed; those who opt for conscious concealment or unconscious self-deception are destroyed. Confessions made during therapy provide valuable information on historical antecedents as well as on the vicissitudes of the self.