Alphabetic letter identification: effects of perceivability, similarity, and bias

The legibility of the letters in the Latin alphabet has been measured numerous times since the beginning of experimental psychology. To identify the theoretical mechanisms attributed to letter identification, we report a comprehensive review of literature, spanning more than a century. This review revealed that identification accuracy has frequently been attributed to a subset of three common sources: perceivability, bias, and similarity. However, simultaneous estimates of these values have rarely (if ever) been performed. We present the results of two new experiments which allow for the simultaneous estimation of these factors, and examine how the shape of a visual mask impacts each of them, as inferred through a new statistical model. Results showed that the shape and identity of the mask impacted the inferred perceivability, bias, and similarity space of a letter set, but that there were aspects of similarity that were robust to the choice of mask. The results illustrate how the psychological concepts of perceivability, bias, and similarity can be estimated simultaneously, and how each make powerful contributions to visual letter identification.     

Do girls and boys perceive themselves as equally engaged in school? The results of an international study from 12 countries

This study examined gender differences in student engagement and academic performance in school. Participants included 3420 students (7th, 8th, and 9th graders) from Austria, Canada, China, Cyprus, Estonia, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The results indicated that, compared to boys, girls reported higher levels of engagement in school and were rated higher by their teachers in academic performance. Student engagement accounted for gender differences in academic performance, but gender did not moderate the associations among student engagement, academic performance, or contextual supports. Analysis of multiple-group structural equation modeling revealed that perceptions of teacher support and parent support, but not peer support, were related indirectly to academic performance through student engagement. This partial mediation model was invariant across gender. The findings from this study enhance the understanding about the contextual and personal factors associated with girls' and boys' academic performance around the world.     

Career-related goal pursuit among post-high school youth: Relations between personal control beliefs and control strivings

The present research reveals the bi-directional relationship between career-related control beliefs and strivings, and their predictive relationship with hours of gainful employment. Three waves of data of a longitudinal study of 532 graduating high school seniors from four ethnically diverse schools in the Los Angeles Unified School District were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results show individuals?? career-related personal control beliefs in effort and social connections, but not in ability or luck, were significantly predictive of career-related control strivings 1?year later. Thus, only personal control beliefs in causal factors that are contingent on an individual??s primary control strivings to enact effects are predictive of active motivational engagement in pursuit of career-related goals. Regarding the inverse direction of influence (i.e., strivings predict beliefs), career-related control strivings were significantly predictive of career-related personal control beliefs in ability, effort, and social connections, but not luck, 1?year later. These results support the idea that active goal engagement creates an implemental mindset that optimistically biases individuals?? beliefs in their personal control over causal factors relevant to attaining a pursued career-related goal. In addition, the results show that career-related control strivings, but not career-related personal control beliefs, are significantly positively associated with the number of hours of gainful employment worked 1-year later, supporting a beliefs-strivings-outcome sequential relationship.     

I act,therefore I am: Athletic identity and the health action process approach predict sport participation among individuals with acquired physical disabilities

ObjectiveThe study had two objectives 1) to test the fit of the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model for sport participation among individuals with acquired physical disabilities and 2) to estimate the extent to which athletic identity predicts intentions to engage in sport within the context of HAPA.DesignProspective cohort of 82 women and 19 men with acquired permanent disabilities (M_age = 44.0; M_{years post-injury} = 16.2; %_{in sport} = 61.7%).MethodAll HAPA indicators and athletic identity were assessed at baseline and sport participation was assessed using the Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire for People with Spinal Cord Injury two weeks later. Structural equation modelling was used to test the HAPA model.ResultsThe HAPA constructs explained 15% of the variance in sport participation and 18% of the variance when athletic identity was added to the model. Instrumental (β = .21), affective (β = .15), and negative outcome expectancies (β = ?.20) were significant predictors of intentions to participate in sport, as was athletic identity (β = .25). Intentions to participate in sport significantly predicted planning (β = .54) yet there was no direct relationship between planning and sport participation (β = ?.008; p > .05). When the relationship between planning and maintenance self-efficacy was reversed, planning had a significant indirect effect on sport participation through maintenance self-efficacy (β = .33).ConclusionThe HAPA model is a good predictive model for sport participation among those with acquired physical disabilities; furthermore, athletic identity accounts for additional variance in sport participation. These constructs can be valuable components of sport promotion programs for this population.     

Examining the effects of grade retention on student reading performance: A longitudinal study

Grade retention is an intervention that has received increasing scrutiny as policies, practices, and results of research diverge. This longitudinal study examines the reading growth trajectories of students (n = 147) from first- through eighth-grade. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) analytic procedures provide unique insights regarding the relative reading growth curves among retained students, similarly achieving but promoted students, and a random sample of students. The results revealed that retained students did not experience a benefit in their growth rate (relative to either the preceding year, or to similarly performing but promoted students), and made less progress compared to the randomly selected group of students. While consistent with the extant empirical evidence failing to support the effectiveness of grade retention, these findings warrant careful consideration given both the longitudinal design and the analytic procedures.     

Physical stigma and the pregnancy role: Receiving help from strangers

Previous research has demonstrated several similarities in the reaction of others to pregnant and to physically stigmatized individuals. This study recorded helping behavior (assistance in picking up scattered keys) directed toward an apparently pregnant, nonpregnant, or facially disfigured woman in an elevator either alone, with a female companion, or with a male companion. A predicted interaction revealed that significantly more assistance was given to the pregnant woman than to either of the other two only when she was alone or with a female companion; she was helped less than the non-pregnant experimenter when she was accompanied by a male. Differences and similarities in the norms that govern behavior toward pregnant women and the physically stigmatized are discussed in light of their relevance to women's development during the childbearing years. The well-documented negative effect of group size on helping was replicated. Unexpected sex differences were found in rate of helping. Women virtually never helped in this situation—even in all-female groups. These findings are discussed in light of previous work on sex differences in helping.Preparation of this article was supported by a faculty development grant awarded to the first author by Rhodes College. We wish to thank Bella DePaulo, Robert Vidulich, and Chris Wetzel for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of the paper.     

Young people's career choices and careers guidance action planning: A case-study of training credits in action

A specific careers guidance action plan, used in conjunction with one of the original training credits pilot schemes, is investigated. Analysis revealed tensions between the pragmatically rational way in which young people reported making career decisions and the technically rational system of guidance built into the design of the scheme. These tensions created operational difficulties for careers officers, and raise important issues for further debate about the nature of careers education and guidance     

Heart-rate Reactivity and the Type A Behaviour Pattern in Three Age Groups of Australian Children

The relationship between the Type A Behaviour Pattern and heart-rate reactivity to the onset of a typical stressor was investigated with a sample of Australian boys and girls from three age-grade levels: preschool, middle-elementary, and upper-elementary. Behaviour Pattern was measured with the Matthews Youth Test for Health (Matthews & Angulo, 1980), and data were collected on children's second-by-second heart rate during rest and the stressor tasks. Reactivity to the onset of the stressor task (a puzzle game or mental arithmetic), was assessed. Results indicated that there were expected age differences in resting and stressor task heart rates, but that there was no significant difference in heart-rate reactivity between children classified as Type A or B Behaviour Pattern, either for the entire sample, for two extreme subsamples, or within each of the three age groups.     

Effects of trait anger and anger expression style on competitive attack responses in a wartime prisoner’s dilemma game

We assessed the role of trait anger and anger expression style on competitive/aggressive decision making and responding. In a 100‐trial iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma (IPD), with instructions to simulate wartime interactions, competition/aggression was defined as “attacking the opponent,” and “waiting for troop reinforcements” was the noncompetitive alternative response. Prior to play, 92 university student players completed the State‐Trait Anger Expression Inventory. They were then paired to play the IPD against partners of similar or dissimilar trait anger levels. At postplay, the State Anger scale was readministered. Results showed significant preplay to postplay increases in state anger, with greater increases shown by high trait anger players. Thus, high trait anger players were especially subject to arousal. Players in the high trait anger group made more competitive/attack responses, and they were more likely to do so when paired with a high trait anger partner. As a result of the high level of competitive/aggressive play, both groups ended with a negative troop count. Trait anger as a general personality temperament was predictive of state anger, competitive/attack responses, and the number of trials before a retaliation was made. The expressive style of anger‐control was also related to manner of play. Trait anger had strong direct and indirect effects through anger control on the number of competitive attack responses. It was concluded that trait anger, especially trait anger/temperament, and anger control difficulties may be toxic personality factors in decision making and competitive behavior. Aggr. Behav. 28:117–125, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Overcoming Procrastination: The Effect of Implementation Intentions1

A hypothesized solution for procrastination is the formation of an implementation intention ( Van Eerde, 2000 ). University students (N = 152) were assessed using the Aitken Procrastination Inventory ( Aitken, 1982 ) and were asked to report to an experiment. Half of the participants formed implementation intentions to attend. An odds ratio indicated that participants who formed implementation intentions were nearly 8 times more likely to keep their appointments than those who did not. Low procrastinators reported more often for the experiment than did high procrastinators (Low = 49.4%; High = 30.1%), χ²(1, N = 152) = 5.84, p < .016. The interaction between implementation intentions and procrastination was not significant, χ²(1, N = 152) = 0.28, p < .60.