Effects of item difficulty on the retrieval of solutions during cognitive skill acquisition: age differences

In cognitive skill learning, shifts to better strategies for obtaining solutions often occur while associations between problems and solutions are being strengthened. In two skill learning experiments, we examined the effects of item difficulty on the retrieval of solutions and the learning of problem-solution associations in younger and older adults. The results of both experiments demonstrated an 'easy effect' in both younger and older adults, such that the retrieval of solutions as well recognition memory for problems was best for the easier items. In addition, a 'hard effect' was found in younger adults, but not in older adults, whereby the retrieval of solutions as well as recognition memory for problems was better for harder items than for medium-difficulty items. The finding that increased computational demands at the item level delayed item memorization and the retrieval of solutions in older adults but not younger adults is consistent with a general-resources account of age-related differences in skill learning.     

Secondary distinctiveness effects: Orthographic distinctiveness and bizarreness effects make independent contributions to memory performance

The secondary distinctiveness effect means that items that are unusual compared to one's general knowledge stored in permanent memory are remembered better than common items. This research studied two forms of secondary‐distinctiveness‐based effects in conjunction: the bizarreness effect and the orthographic distinctiveness (OD) effect. More specifically, an experiment investigated in young adults a possible additive effect of bizarreness and OD effects in free recall performance. Results revealed that in young adults these two secondary‐distinctiveness‐based effects appear to be largely independent and can complement each other to enhance performance. Findings are discussed in light of current distinctiveness theory.     

Age-related variance in decisions under ambiguity is explained by changes in reasoning,executive functions,and decision-making under risk

Previous literature has explained older individuals’ disadvantageous decision-making under ambiguity in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) by reduced emotional warning signals preceding decisions. We argue that age-related reductions in IGT performance may also be explained by reductions in certain cognitive abilities (reasoning, executive functions). In 210 participants (18–86 years), we found that the age-related variance on IGT performance occurred only in the last 60 trials. The effect was mediated by cognitive abilities and their relation with decision-making performance under risk with explicit rules (Game of Dice Task). Thus, reductions in cognitive functions in older age may be associated with both a reduced ability to gain explicit insight into the rules of the ambiguous decision situation and with failure to choose the less risky options consequently after the rules have been understood explicitly. Previous literature may have underestimated the relevance of cognitive functions for age-related decline in decision-making performance under ambiguity.     

Effects of voluntary wheel running on heart rate, body temperature, and locomotor activity in response to acute and repeated stressor exposures in rats

Stress often negatively impacts physical and mental health but it has been suggested that voluntary physical activity may benefit health by reducing some of the effects of stress. The present experiments tested whether voluntary exercise can reduce heart rate, core body temperature and locomotor activity responses to acute (novelty or loud noise) or repeated stress (loud noise). After 6 weeks of running-wheel access, rats exposed to a novel environment had reduced heart rate, core body temperature, and locomotor activity responses compared to rats housed under sedentary conditions. In contrast, none of these measures were different between exercised and sedentary rats following acute 30-min noise exposures, at either 85 or 98 dB. Following 10 weeks of running-wheel access, both groups displayed significant habituation of all these responses to 10 consecutive daily 30-min presentations of 98 dB noise stress. However, the extent of habituation of all three responses was significantly enhanced in exercised compared to sedentary animals on the last exposure to noise. These results suggest that in physically active animals, under some conditions, acute responses to stress exposure may be reduced, and response habituation to repeated stress may be enhanced, which ultimately may reduce the negative and cumulative impact of stress.     

Rorty,religion, and humanism

This article offers a review of Richard Rorty’s attempts to come to terms with the role of religion in our public and intellectual life by tracing the key developments in his position, partially in response to the ubiquitous criticisms of his distinction between private and public projects. Since Rorty rejects the possibility of dismissing religion on purely epistemic grounds, he is determined to treat it, instead, as a matter of politics. My suggestion is that, in this respect, Rorty’s position is best construed as that of a humanist rather than a post-modernist. Ultimately, it appears that, in his view, the positive element of religion—i.e. the idea of religion as a social gospel—has been absorbed and transformed into a utopian striving which humanists associate with the ideal of democracy. Hence, in this regard, religion can be considered obsolete. Yet, without explicitly invoking the usual epistemic grounds, Rorty’s arguments for excluding religion from the public sphere remain rather thin, and an interest in reforming rather than excluding religion would have been more consistent with his general outlook.     

Physicians' understanding of patients' personal representations of their diabetes: accuracy and association with self-care

The degree of accuracy with which physicians understand their patients' views may be of central importance for promoting self-care in the majority of chronic illnesses and in type 2 diabetes in particular. The objectives of this study were to measure the accuracy of the general practitioners' understanding of the patients' views and relate it to health behavioural outcomes in patients with non-complicated type 2 diabetes. The participants in this cross-sectional study consisted of 14 clinicians and 78 of their patients from Paris, France. The predictors were levels of accuracy in understanding the patients' views derived from the illness perception questionnaire-revised (IPQ-R). The outcomes were patient-reported self-care measures. In regression models controlling for clinical and personal variables, higher accuracy on chronicity beliefs was associated with an improved diet and increased blood glucose self-testing and higher accuracy in identifying treatment control beliefs was associated with better dietary self-care. Accuracy was higher with regard to beliefs about causes, treatment control and consequences. These results suggest that accuracy may impact self-care in specific domains of illness perception but not others. The results may help identify useful avenues of communication training designed for professionals.     

Presentation modality effect on false memories in younger and older adults: the use of an inference paradigm

Classically, false memories are studied using the DRM paradigm (Deese, 1959; Roediger & McDermott, 1995), involving use of words lists. The words of each list are linked to a critical word not presented. Participants create a false memory in recognising and/or recalling this critical word. In most cases older adults have more false memories than younger adults in this paradigm. To use less strategy-dependent material, we compared predictive inferences activated during text reading in young and healthy older participants. For example, in the sentence "The fragile porcelain vase was thrown against the wall" the predictive inference was that the vase is broken. After reading or hearing the texts, the participants had false memories in recalling and/or recognising the predictive inferences. Older adults had more false recognitions than younger adults when they read or heard the text. However, the difference did not reach significance with the cued recalled task. It is concluded that, in more ecological situations such as text reading, abilities in older adults can be preserved.     

Habitual computer game playing at night is related to depressive symptoms

This study investigated whether the amount and circadian time of habitual computer game playing were related to depressive symptoms in adolescents and young adults. We expected that habitual late playing relates to more depressive symptoms beyond the effect of the total time of computer game playing as playing at night may involve short, irregular, and disturbed sleep as well as misalignment of the circadian rhythm. 646 adolescents and young adults (ages 13–30; 90.9% males) who play the internet role-playing game World of Warcraft completed an online questionnaire. Habitual computer game playing between 10 pm and 6 am was related to an increased risk of high depression scores independent of the total amount of playing. Adolescents (ages 13–17 years) were most vulnerable when habitually playing during early night (i.e., 10–12 pm), while emergent adults (ages 18–22 years) showed more vulnerability when habitually playing late at night (i.e., after 2 am). The effect was partly mediated by daytime sleepiness but not by sleep loss or insomnia problems.