Cognitive Constraints on the Development of Hierarchical Spatial Organization Skills

This study examines the mechanism behind an observed shift in young children's hierarchical organization skills. By 9 years of age, children, like adults, code the location of an object in a homogeneous space at two levels (fine-grained and categorical) and combine this information when reporting location. For points within a circle, multi-level location coding occurs for both radius and angle. Before age 9 years, children employ hierarchical coding only radially. It was hypothesized that younger children may either be unable to encode and/or process two dimensions simultaneously, or to impose the frame of reference required for angular subdivision. Tasks were designed to test these two hypotheses: one reduced the relevant dimensions required for coding, the other provided the frame of reference. Results indicate that 7-year-olds are able to form angular categories when the number of dimensions for coding is reduced, and that an explicit frame of reference does not facilitate mature angular category division. The acquisition of adult forms of spatial representation appears to be limited by encoding and/or processing capacities, rather than by spatial abilities.     

Dissociative experiences, psychopathology and adjustment, and child and adolescent maltreatment in female college students.

Thirty-three female college students who scored in the upper 15% on the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) were compared with 33 female students who scored below the mean on the DES on measures of psychopathology (Symptom Checklist-90), college adjustment (Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire), and child and adolescent maltreatment. Compared with controls, high-DES subjects reported more psychopathology, poorer college adjustment, and a greater extent of psychological, physical, and sexual maltreatment. On the basis of the Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule, 2 high-DES subjects but none of the control subjects met criteria for a dissociative disorder (i.e., multiple personality and psychogenic amnesia). Despite the sensitivity of the DES, 8 subjects who scored in the upper 2% of the population on the DES failed to meet criteria for a dissociative disorder.     

Feminine gender role behavior and academic achievement: Their relation in a community sample of middle childhood boys

Previous studies on the relationship between gender role behavior and academic achievement and/or cognitive abilities in boys have led to somewhat conflicting hypotheses. The present study extends these hypotheses to a broadly representative school-based sample of boys (ages 6–10 years) and asks whether feminine and/or masculine gender role behavior is associated with lower academic achievement in general as well as specifically in math, and whether these relationships increase with age. The parents of 333 boys (74% of the eligible sample) who attended one public school system in northern New Jersey agreed to participate. The survey included two psychometrically robust gender role behavior questionnaires as well as the Child Behavior Checklist, which contains a scale concerned with school achievement, all based on parental report. In addition, the results of the routinely school-administered California Achievement Tests were analyzed. The results only weakly and somewhat inconsistently supported the hypotheses. We conclude that variations of gender role behavior as seen in a school-based sample are only marginally correlated with school achievement. The correlation patterns vary with the aspect of gender role behavior—masculinity, femininity—under investigation and with age.We wish to thank the children and parents who participated in the study. We also acknowledge the secretarial assistance of William Tallmadge. This research was conducted while David Sandberg was a postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Psychiatry of Columbia University and funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (National Research Service Award HD06726). In addition, this work was supported in part by grants to Drs. Ehrhardt and Meyer-Bahlburg from the Spencer Foundation, the William T. Grant Foundation, and the Ford Foundation, and by NIMH Clinical Research Center Grant MH-30906, and NIMH Research Grant MH-34635.     

Caring for Dying Children and Their Families: MFTs Working at the Gates of the Elysian Fields

The constant comparison method was used to analyze seven in-depth interviews with Marriage and Family Therapists and some of their colleagues working with dying children and their families. The findings of the study revealed that working in these settings can encourage shifts in priorities, relationships, and beliefs about life and death, and can elicit professional growth. Also, it can carry with it significant costs such as emotional exhaustion, and hypervigilance about death. Implications for practice and training are discussed. In the Greek mythology, the Elysian Fields is the place where the souls of the heroes and the virtuous dwell in the afterlife. It is the equivalent of the Christian Heaven. Portions of this paper were presented at the 65th Annual Conference of the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, Long Beach, CA, 2007.     

Interpersonally traumatised patients’ view of significant and corrective experiences in the psychotherapeutic relationship

Background: Clinical experience points to the importance of significant experiences in the therapy relationship for patients who have been interpersonally traumatised but the empirical research is limited.

Aim: The aim was to gain increased knowledge about how significant and potentially corrective experiences within the therapeutic relationship were described by patients in trauma-focused therapy and how the participants thought such experiences might have affected the therapeutic work.

Method: Five patients who were, or recently had been, in trauma-focused therapy were interviewed about their experiences of the therapy relationship. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the interviews.

Results: Four themes were identified: ‘Human contact’, ‘Validation’, ‘To face the painful’ and ‘Development of trust’. Positive experiences in the therapeutic relationship were sometimes seen as crucial for the therapeutic work and for patients’ improvement.

Conclusions: Previous findings about the significance of corrective experiences in psychotherapy were confirmed, particularly experiences of the therapist’s accepting stance, personal and human contact and encouragement. The therapist’s ability to evoke trust in the patient and her capacity to help patients to face painful material may be particularly important for traumatised patients.     

Differentiating Between Attachment Styles and Behaviors and their Association with Marital Quality

The purpose of this study was to distinguish between the influence of attachment styles and behaviors on marital quality for couples. Data were gathered from 680 couples in a married relationship. Results showed attachment style and behaviors predicted marital quality for both men and women, with higher levels of attachment related to greater quality. Attachment behaviors predicted more of the variance in quality than did styles. Specific implications regarding how therapists may wish to foster behaviors that promote attachment security in marriages are discussed.     

Reply to Downing,Jacobs, and Schneider

We thank our reviewers for their discussions and we appreciate the opportunity to dialogue about our work with Sandra. Some responses express our shared point of view, others our individual reflections. For clarity, we indicate the point of view at the beginning of each section.     

Mega‐interest on Microcredit: Are Lenders Exploiting the Poor?

Microcredit is often hailed as an effective way of alleviating poverty. In recent years, however, microfinance institutions have been the target of much criticism due to their comparatively high interest rates (which may be as high as 70–100% per annum). This paper discusses whether it can be morally justified to charge very high rates of interest when lending money to the poor. Arguments are drawn from contemporary as well as historical debates on usury, exploitation, egalitarianism and consequentialism. It is conceded that it would be preferable if interest rates could be reduced, but it is argued that typical microlenders today do nothing wrong in setting their rates at the current levels. Instead the responsibility rests on governments, commercial banks and overseas investors to facilitate an environment where rates could be reduced.     

An Addendum to the 1997 Outcome Research Chart

In 1997, an article in the American Journal of Family Therapy was published that summarized the outcome research regarding the efficacy of specific approaches of Marriage and Family Therapy in treating certain disorders (Sandberg et al ., 1997). The article updated the original matrix of findings reported by Gurman, Kniskern, and Pinsof (1986) by reviewing the relevant research through 1995, and provided a summary of findings in an updated version of the original 1986 chart. Since the publication of that article (Sandberg et al ., 1997), feedback has been received from a number of MFT researchers who pointed out some omissions and oversights in the updated chart. After responding to their feedback, it has been concluded that a number of changes must be made to the 1997 summary chart to present a more complete summary of MFT outcome research up through 1995.