Transfer of fear reduction through systematic desensitization

Systematic desensitization therapy involves the presentation of fear-provoking situations through visualization As the visualizations cease to evoke emotional responses, the fear-provoking potential of the real situations decreases. Research has clearly shown that such transfer does indeed occur with a wide variety of fears. Transfer has been demonstrated, for example, with fear of small animals (Lang and Lazovik, 1963), interpersonal performance anxiety (Paul, 1966), classic phobias (Lazarus, 1961), test anxiety (Katahn, Strenger and Cherry, 1966), impotence (Wolpe, 1958) and frigidity (Lazarus, 1963). However, the nature of transfer has received little attention. Wolpe (1963) has claimed that transfer from therapy to the real life situation is almost complete and direct: “There is almost invariably a one-to one relationship between what the patient can imagine without anxiety and what he can experience in reality without anxiety”. This claim has received support from Rachman (1966) who found that fear reduction transferred immediately to the real situation in 82 per cent of his observations. Hoenig and Reed (1966) reported that after a brief delay, transfer effects were observed in the case of words representing fearful stimuli but were inconsistent in the case of the real stimuli. Agras (1967) found transfer to be delayed in all his cases. He further reported that, though all patients improved, a direct relationship between therapeutic progress and symptom reduction was not found. Both Hain et al. (1966) and Meyer and Crisp (1966) have described the failure of therapeutic effects to transfer to real life.These somewhat inconsistent reports may stem in part from the measurement of transfer effects at different times. Another possibility is that more fearful Ss may evidence less transfer than less fearful Ss. Lang and Lazovik (1963) reported that Ss who completed less than 75 per cent of the hierarchy showed little improvement although direct transfer effects were observed for less fearful Ss (those who complete 75 per cent or more hierarchy items). The present study of transfer effects was designed to remove confoundingof level of fear with extent of progress in systematic desensitization.     

Parametric effects of reinforcement frequency, amount of reinforcement, and required response force on sheltered workshop behavior

Three experiments involving parametric manipulation of reinforcement contingencies were performed with retardates in an automated Sheltered Workshop token economy. Experiment I showed that with amount of reinforcement held constant, work rates were positively related to reinforcement rates on fixed-interval schedules and inversely related to reinforcement rates on fixed-ratio schedules. Experiment II demonstrated an interaction between frequency of ratio reinforcement and torque required to complete a work unit: work rates were positively related to reinforcement rates when required response force was high and negatively related to reinforcement rates when required response force was low. Experiment III revealed that, with reinforcement frequency held constant, there was in inverse relationship between amount of reinforcement and work rate.     

Graduate psychology students' perceptions of the scientist-practitioner model of training

Since its inception over forty years ago, there has been considerable controversy regarding the viability of the scientist-practitioner model for training professional psychologists. The present study utilized a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods to assess graduate psychology students' (n=24) perceptions of this training model. Counselling, clinical, and school psychology students participated in semi-structured interviews and were administered the Vocational Preference Inventory, Form B (Holland, 1977) and the Scientist-Practitioner Inventory (Leong & Zachar, 1991). Data were analyzed using a combination of grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and additional qualitative data analytic approaches (Miles & Huberman, 1984). A number of patterns were observed between students' perceptions and feelings about the scientist-practitioner model and their definition of science, career interests, and shaping experiences. Implications for the future training of professional psychologists are discussed.     

Reliable Digit Span: a systematic review and cross-validation study

Reliable Digit Span (RDS) is a heavily researched symptom validity test with a recent literature review yielding more than 20 studies ranging in dates from 1994 to 2011. Unfortunately, limitations within some of the research minimize clinical generalizability. This systematic review and cross-validation study was conducted to address these limitations, thus increasing the measure's clinical utility. Sensitivity and specificity rates were calculated for the ≤6 and ≤7 cutoffs when data were globally combined and divided by clinical groups. The cross-validation of specific diagnostic groups was consistent with the data reported in the literature. Overall, caution should be used when utilizing the ≤7 cutoff in all clinical groups and when utilizing the ≤6 cutoff in the following groups: cerebrovascular accident, severe memory disorders, mental retardation, borderline intellectual functioning, and English as a second language. Additional limitations and cautions are provided.     

Attention modulates 'speech-tracking' at a cocktail party

Recent findings by Mesgarani and Chang demonstrate that signals in auditory cortex can reconstruct the spectrotemporal patterns of attended speech tokens better than those of ignored ones. These results help extend the study of attention into the domain of natural speech, posing numerous questions and challenges for future research.