Two operations in character recognition: Some evidence from reaction-time measurements

Theories of the recognition of a visual character may be divided into three sets.defined by the way in which the stimulus is encoded before being compared to a memorized target character. A character-classification experiment was performed in which the test stimuli were characters that were either intact or degraded by a superimposed pattern. Analyses of reaction-times in the experiment lead to the rejection of two of the three sets of theories. There appear to be at least two separate operations in the recognition or classification of a character. The first encodes the visual stimulus as an abstracted representation of its physical properties. The second, which may occur more than once, compares such a stimulus representation to a memory representation, producing either a match or a mismatch. A theory of high-speed exhaustive scanning in memory underlies the experiment and is given new support. The method of reaction-time analysis that is introduced, an elaboration of the Uelmholtz-Donders subtraction method, may be applicable to the general problem of the invariance ofperceived form under certain transfomations of the stimulus.     

“Idiographic” vis-à-vis “idiodynamic” in the historical perspective of personality theory: Remembering Gordon Allport, 1897–1997

The centenary of Gordon W. Allport provides an occasion for reappraising his special position regarding uniqueness in personality. Allport's theory of personality, as first presented in his 1937 textbook, highlighted the idiographic in conjunction with the nomothetic approach, and the fundamental unit in his formulation was the trait. He described common and unique traits as well as the unique organization of traits. In contradistinction, the idiodynamic orientation, introduced by Saul Rosenzweig in 1951 and, in more detail in 1958, focused on events which over a lifespan constitute an idioverse—a population of phenomenological events. Allport's original emphasis on the idiographic and his later confusion concerning idiodynamics, can, in considerable measure, be understood by recognizing the role of religious spirituality in his conception of the person. That conception, which derived from an early religious indoctrination, asserted itself with renewed vigor in his later years. His scientific conception of personality thus remained unconsummated, subordinated by him to the unsolvable mysteries of ontology which properly belong, he believed, in the domain of faith. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A PROBLEM ABOUT THE MORALITY OF SOME COMMON FORMS OF PRAYER

At a time of acute danger, people commonly petition God for help for themselves or their loved ones; such as praying that an avalanche heading in one's direction be diverted, or that an organ donor be found for one's dying child. Such prayer seems natural and, indeed, for believers, reasonable and acceptable. It seems perverse to condemn such typical prayer, as wrong. But once we closely examine what is actually happening in such situations, we shall see that frequently prayer of this sort is morally problematic. I argue that such prayer ought to be seen as a form of action (rather than, say, mere hope), thereby needing to meet the higher moral standards that apply to actions; and that the assumption of the benevolence of the deity does not suffice to make such prayer legitimate.     

Reflections On The Intensive Measurement Of Stress,Coping, And Mood,With An Emphasis On Daily Measures

Abstract

This paper discusses reasons for the shift from longer-term measurement of stress, coping, and mood to more intensive measurement strategies. Daily assessments are common in intensive studies of these constructs. We review measures available to the researcher, focusing on various aspects of the constructs. While daily assessments are an improvement over less intensive methods, we also discuss shortcomings of these measures. Furthermore, current assessments may not capture many important dimensions of stressful occurrences, and we suggest that such occurrences be thought of in terms of episodes. Modifications of current assessments are discussed, as are even more intensive assessments of stress, coping, and mood.     

Stability of mood states and biochemistry across pregnancy

Four hundred and thirty pregnant women were recruited during their second trimester of pregnancy (M=20 weeks). They were designated depressed (N=172) or nondepressed (N=258) on the Structured Clinical Interview of Depression (SCID) and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D). They were given a second assessment when they were approximately 32 weeks gestational age. At both assessments they were given self-report measures (CES-D, the State Anxiety Inventory, and the State Anger Inventory) and provided urine samples for assays of cortisol, catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine) and serotonin. They were also given the VITAS scale for lower back pain and leg pain and a sleep disturbance scale. The stability of mood states and biochemistry across pregnancy (20 and 32 weeks) were assessed inasmuch as mood states, and biochemistry have been noted to predict prematurity and low birthweight. Significant correlations were noted for all variables except serotonin. Relationships between mood states and biochemistry were also noted but only between cortisol and depression, cortisol and anxiety, and epinephrine and anxiety. Significant stability was noted between the 20-week measures and the 32-week measures including depression, anxiety, anger, and cortisol. These were, in turn, correlated with each other and with, low back pain, leg pain, and sleep disturbance. These data suggest the stability of mood states and cortisol across pregnancy.     

The time of consciousness and vice versa

The temporal granularity of consciousness may be far less fine than the real-time information processing mechanisms that underlie our sensitivity to small temporal differences. It is suggested that conscious time perception, like space perception, is subject to errors that belie a unitary underlying representation. E. R. Clay's (The Alternative: A Study in Psychology, 1882) concept of the "specious present," an extended moment represented in consciousness, is suggested as an alternative to the more common notion of instantaneous experience that underlies much reasoning based on the "time of arrival" in consciousness.     

Immediate antecedents of cigarette smoking: an analysis from ecological momentary assessment

The authors assessed the association between smoking and situational cues, including affect, in real-world contexts. Using ecological momentary assessment, 304 smokers monitored ad-lib smoking for 1 week, recording each cigarette on palm-top computers. Generalized estimating equations contrasted 10,084 smoking and 11,155 nonsmoking situations. After controlling for smoking restrictions, smoking was strongly related to smoking urges and modestly related to consumption of coffee and food, the presence of other smokers, and several activities. Smoking was unrelated to negative or positive affect or to arousal, although it was associated with restlessness. Thus, in daily life, affect appears to exert little influence over ad-lib smoking in heavy smoking adults.     

Variability of momentary pain predicts recall of weekly pain: a consequence of the peak (or salience) memory heuristic

Patients' recall of their recent pain is commonly assessed by both researchers and clinicians. However, concerns have been raised about differences between recalled pain and the average of real-time recordings of pain taken over the same period, in part because of the possibility that memory processes affect how retrospective pain is reported. It was hypothesized that memory processes affect the accuracy of recall, such that those with higher versus lower variability of real-time pain will recall pain at higher levels, relative to their average momentary pain. Sixty-eight chronic pain patients with rheumatologic conditions reported their pain several times a day for 2 weeks and also recalled their weekly pain at the end of each of those 2 weeks. The hypothesis was confirmed and it was concluded that variability of real-time pain affects the recall of pain.     

Situational correlates of abstinence self-efficacy

Little is known about the situations that are associated with changes in self-efficacy during an attempt to quit smoking. In this study, 214 smokers used palmtop computers to record momentary self-efficacy ratings and situational context during a quit attempt. Higher urge to smoke and negative affect were associated with reduced self-efficacy. Although alcohol and coffee consumption are associated with heightened lapse risk, they were unrelated to abstinence self-efficacy. Individuals with low baseline self-efficacy generally reported lower self-efficacy across situations, but these differences were more pronounced under conditions of high urge and negative affect. These results suggest that self-efficacy may be reactive to affect-motivational states during a quit attempt. Whether these influences represent cognitive biases or objective risk assessments is not known.