Behavioral complexity theory: Seven decades and beyond

This paper provides a synopsis of the origins and subsequent development of behavioral complexity theory (BCT). First, the foundational contributions of personal construct theory, conceptual systems theory, and the conceptual complexity theory are described. Second, the diversification of BCT via integrative complexity theory, Strategic Management Simulations, and Metacomplexity Simulations is outlined. Next, the discussion emphasizes the contemporary relevance and importance of BCT, suggests that more scalable assessment and development technologies should be created (especially of integration), and ends by calling for enhanced interaction within the BCT community.     

Complexity Theory: Predictions Based on the Confluence of Science-Wide and Behavioral Theories

Views of behavioral and science wide complexity theories are briefly summarized. Theory-based predictions for human cognition and behavior based on both theories are advanced.
Streufert (in this special issue) has discussed the confluence of science-wide and behavioral complexity theory. Even though the former attempts to find common processes in all the sciences and the latter theory has, to date, limited itself to human behavior, there are many similarities in approach and in explanations of observed phenomena. Differences between the two theories are minor in comparison to their commonalities. Considering the many similarities, it may be useful to confirm (and possibly extend) behavioral complexity theory. A number of theorems, many familiar, some slightly modified, some new, will be provided at the end of this paper.     

Graphic Representations of Processing Structure: The Time-Event Matrix

Science-wide complexity theory presents strange attractors as lawful outcomes of nonlinear functions. The time-event matrices used by Streufert and associates to depict human information processing in complex task environments have similar characteristics. The use and construction of these matrices is described. The technique may be useful across sciences to depict the consequences of complex phenomena.     

A comparison of EMG and SCL in normal and depressed subjects

Skin conductance level (SCL) and electromyograms (EMGs) recorded from three muscle sites were compared for 15 female hospitalized psychiatric patients meeting diagnostic criteria for primary affective disorder and 15 age- and race-matched controls. The depressed subjects had significantly lower SCL and significantly higher resting EMG levels recorded from one muscle site. Electromyogram and SCL were not found to be significantly correlated with each other or with measures of anxiety or depression for the patients with primary affective disorder. Normal controls, however, showed significant correlations between a measure of depression and both EMG and SCL. These results are discussed with suggestions for future research.     

War Experiences Inventory: Initial Psychometric and Structural Properties

We examined the structural and psychometric properties of the War Experiences Inventory (WEI) with data from 255 post deployed service members (224 men and 31 women). Results from principal components analyses yielded a five-factor solution assessing sexual trauma, combat exposure, interpersonal distress, circumstances of deployment, and personal injury. Psychometric analyses revealed scale scores were internally consistent; validity evidence showed WEI subscales were significantly correlated with measures of readjustment, PTSD, psychological distress, and alcohol abuse. Findings provide preliminary evidence of structural and psychometric properties of the WEI and its utility in assessing war-related experiences in operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.     

Unionization in the United States and India: An Empirical Investigation

Union voting intentions of 622 employees in the United States and 120 employees in India were investigated. Union beliefs and job satisfaction influenced voting intentions in both countries. Employer's willingness to correct workplace problems, presence of union members in the family, employment in the public sector, gender, and level of education influenced union voting intentions only in the U.S. sample.     

Impact of infralimbic inputs on intercalated amygdala neurons: a biophysical modeling study

Intercalated (ITC) amygdala neurons regulate fear expression by controlling impulse traffic between the input (basolateral amygdala; BLA) and output (central nucleus; Ce) stations of the amygdala for conditioned fear responses. Previously, stimulation of the infralimbic (IL) cortex was found to reduce fear expression and the responsiveness of Ce neurons to BLA inputs. These effects were hypothesized to result from the activation of ITC cells projecting to Ce. However, ITC cells inhibit each other, leading to the question of how IL inputs could overcome the inter-ITC inhibition to regulate the responses of Ce neurons to aversive conditioned stimuli (CSs). To investigate this, we first developed a compartmental model of a single ITC cell that could reproduce their bistable electroresponsive properties, as observed experimentally. Next, we generated an ITC network that implemented the experimentally observed short-term synaptic plasticity of inhibitory inter-ITC connections. Model experiments showed that strongly adaptive CS-related BLA inputs elicited persistent responses in ITC cells despite the presence of inhibitory interconnections. The sustained CS-evoked activity of ITC cells resulted from an unusual slowly deinactivating K(+) current. Finally, over a wide range of stimulation strengths, brief IL activation caused a marked increase in the firing rate of ITC neurons, leading to a persistent decrease in Ce output, despite inter-ITC inhibition. Simulations revealed that this effect depended on the bistable properties and synaptic heterogeneity of ITC neurons. These results support the notion that IL inputs are in a strategic position to control extinction of conditioned fear via the activation of ITC neurons.     

Are Ethicality Perceptions of Different Counterproductive Behaviors Affected by Workplace Dependencies?1

Dependency theory posits that relationships in organizations are affected by perceived dependencies. The present paper investigated whether the perceived ethicality of various counterproductive behaviors depends on perceived dependencies. Falsifying time reports and using organizational resources for personal use were considered to be more unethical by individuals who scored low on dependency, whereas concealing one's errors was considered to be more unethical by individuals who scored high on dependency. These results were not attributable to social desirability bias. Implications are elaborated.     

Clarifying Heterogeneity of Daytime and Nighttime Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress in Combat Veterans With Insomnia

Daytime and nighttime symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are common among combat veterans and military service members. However, there is a great deal of heterogeneity in how symptoms are expressed. Clarifying the heterogeneity of daytime and nighttime PTSD symptoms through exploratory clustering may generate hypotheses regarding ways to optimally match evidence-based treatments to PTSD symptom profiles. We used mixture modeling to reveal clusters based on 6 daytime and nighttime symptoms of 154 combat veterans with insomnia and varying levels of PTSD symptoms. Three clusters with increasing symptom severity were identified (n1 = 50, n2 = 70, n3 = 34). These results suggest that, among veterans with insomnia, PTSD symptoms tend to exist on a continuum of severity, rather than as a categorical PTSD diagnosis. Hypotheses regarding possible targeted treatment strategies for veterans within each identified cluster, as well as ways to generalize these methods to other groups within the military, are discussed.