Contextual interference processing during fast categorisations of facial expressions

We examined interference effects of emotionally associated background colours during fast valence categorisations of negative, neutral and positive expressions. According to implicitly learned colour–emotion associations, facial expressions were presented with colours that either matched the valence of these expressions or not. Experiment 1 included infrequent non-matching trials and Experiment 2 a balanced ratio of matching and non-matching trials. Besides general modulatory effects of contextual features on the processing of facial expressions, we found differential effects depending on the valance of target facial expressions. Whereas performance accuracy was mainly affected for neutral expressions, performance speed was specifically modulated by emotional expressions indicating some susceptibility of emotional expressions to contextual features. Experiment 3 used two further colour–emotion combinations, but revealed only marginal interference effects most likely due to missing colour–emotion associations. The results are discussed with respect to inherent processing demands of emotional and neutral expressions and their susceptibility to contextual interference.     

Collective Efficacy as a Mediator of the Trustworthiness – Performance Relationship in Computer-Mediated Team-based Contexts

The current study investigated the role of trustworthiness perceptions at the individual level and collective efficacy at the team level on team performance in computer-mediated teams using multi-level structural equation modeling (MSEM). It was hypothesized that trustworthiness perceptions and collective efficacy would predict team performance, and collective efficacy would partially mediate the trustworthiness – performance relationship in computer-mediated teams. Sixty-four teams (five participants each) engaged in a computer-mediated task across two experimental sessions. Trustworthiness measured after session 1, collective efficacy measured after sessions 1 and 2, and team performance measured of sessions 1 and 2 were used to build the MSEM. The half longitudinal model for assessing mediation was used to examine the influence of trustworthiness perceptions on performance through collective efficacy over time. Results demonstrated support for the hypothesized model, such that trustworthiness perceptions demonstrated indirect effects on performance through collective efficacy. These findings extend past research by identifying an emergent mechanism by which trustworthiness is important for team performance in computer-mediated teams.     

The effects of adaptation to square-wave gratings as a function of grating orientation

An adaptation technique was used to measure the selectivity or tuning for grating orientation in the visual system for different orientations of the inspection stimulus. Duration thresholds for grating patterns of constant luminance were determined for 13 test gratings oriented from ±5 to 90 deg away from each of five adaptation gratings: 0, 22, 45, 67, and 90 deg. Threshold data obtained for test gratings without prior adaptation indicated higher sensitivity for gratings oriented along the horizontal and vertical axis than along the oblique axis. After adaptation, thresholds increased (sensitivity was reduced) for gratings having similar orientations as the test gratings. However, the functions relating sensitivity reduction to degree of angular disparity between test and adaptation grating did not vary across the five inpsection orientations, i.e., selectivity or tuning for grating orientation appeared to be independent of the orientation of the adapting stimulus.     

Choice between two-component chained and tandem schedules

Pigeons were trained on a two-key choice procedure in which a pair of equal and concurrently available variable-interval schedules (initial links) arranged entry into one or the other of two mutually exclusive schedules (terminal links) that ended in primary reinforcement. The terminal links were two-component chained or tandem schedules. Responses during the initial links were distributed equally on the two keys whenever the terminal links were associated with the same sets of interreinforcement intervals. Whether or not the terminal-link interreinforcement intervals were the same on the two keys, initial-link responding was affected by neither the presence nor relative durations of differentially signalled components within a terminal-link schedule. The simplest interpretation of these results is that initial-link responding is maintained directly by delayed primary reinforcement, rather than conditioned reinforcement afforded by the stimuli correlated with the terminal-link schedule components. This finding suggests that aspects of chained schedule performance usually attributed to conditioned reinforcement might best be reinterpreted in terms of delayed primary reinforcement and various discriminative functions served by the component-correlated stimuli.     

Separating the effects of interreinforcement time and number of interreinforcement responses

The relative importance of interreinforcement time and interreinforcement responses was evaluated by varying each independently. To do this, a blackout was presented after each nonreinforced response under both fixed-ratio and fixed-interval schedules of reinforcement. Manipulating the blackout duration under the fixed-ratio schedule caused interreinforcement time to vary without affecting the number of interreinforcement responses. Pigeons' post-reinforcement and post-blackout response latencies were found to increase linearly with interreinforcement time. Under the fixed-interval schedule, the same blackout manipulations changed the number of interreinforcement responses without affecting interreinforcement time. Post-reinforcement and post-blackout response latencies under this condition were approximately constant. These results suggest that responding is controlled by interreinforcement time and is not influenced by the number of responses emitted between reinforcements.     

Cross-national stereotypes of locus of control in university students1

Stereotypes of locus of control were studied in male and female university students from eight countries (Canada, France, West Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, United States). The subjects took the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control (I-E) Scale in standard fashion (“own” scores) and then in the role of students similar to themselves in their own country (attributed own) and in selected other countries (attributed other). Using the difference between “own” scores and “attributed” scores as the operational measure of stereotype, the results indicate (1) that scores attributed to students in a given country bear little relationship to those students “own” scores, thereby suggesting the presence of stereotypes of locus of control; (2) students in most countries attribute greater externality to the average student in their own country compared to themselves; (3) countries vary in the degree to which they stereotype other countries with the U.S. students significantly attributing greater externality to other countries and Japanese students significantly attributing greater internality to other students; (4) countries vary in the degree to which they are stereotyped with German students perceived as most internal and Italian students as most external; (5) the U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. are perceived differently on content subscales of the I-E Scale although their overall attributed scores do not differ.     

Issues Arising in Psychological Consultations to Help Parents Talk to Minor and Young Adult Children about their Cancer Genetic Test Result: a Guide to Providers

The defining difference between genetic and traditional medicine is that genetic findings have implications not just for the patient, but also for their relatives. Discussion of a test result between parent and child is both a transformative and a translational moment in the life of a family. Parents report wanting help in talking to their children. The challenge for genetic counselors and other providers is to be able to recognize which issues are at the core of parental distress and be able to offer recommendations to empower and support parents. The complexity of potential genetic findings, including variants of uncertain significance (VUS) and incidental findings have vastly increased, requiring considerable explanation and leaving less time for discussion of emotional issues. While the nature of the testing (single gene to multigene panel and genomic testing) is dramatically changing, the nature of parent concerns remains remarkably constant. Families differ in many respects, so no “recipe” suffices to answer parents’ questions about how this important task should be approached in each family. Successful consultation to parents requires true counseling, matching parents’ fears and questions with information, exploration and advice specific to their concerns, their circumstances and strengths.