The structure of executive functions in children: A closer examination of inhibition,shifting, and updating

An increasing number of studies has investigated the latent factor structure of executive functions. Some studies found a three‐factor structure of inhibition, shifting, and updating, but others could not replicate this finding. We assumed that the task choices and scoring methods might be responsible for these contradictory findings. Therefore, we selected tasks in which input modality was varied, controlled for baseline speed, and used both speed and accuracy scores, in order to investigate whether a three factor model with inhibition, shifting, and updating could still be replicated. In a group of 211 children, who were tested at the beginning of grade 1, at approximately 6 years of age, and again after 18 months, the best fitting model was not the three‐factor model, but instead consisted of an updating factor and a combined inhibition and shifting factor, besides two baseline speed factors (verbal and motor). We argue that these results might indicate that the structural organization of executive functions might be different in children than in adults, but that there might also be an alternative explanation: the distinction in executive functions might not accurately represent cognitive structures but instead be a methodological artefact.     

Breaching the contract? Using social contract theory to explain individuals’ online behavior to safeguard privacy

ABSTRACT

This study applies social contract theory to examine whether perceptions of a social contract explains adaptive behavior to safeguard online privacy. We (1) identify and (2) estimate the prevalence of subgroups that differ in their perceived “social contract” (based on privacy concerns, trust, and risk), and (3) measure how this perceived social contract affects adaptive online behavior. Using a representative two-wave panel survey (N = 1,222), we distinguished five subgroups of internet users; the highly-concerned, wary, ambivalent, neutral (the largest group), and carefree users. The former three were more likely to adapt their behavior than the latter two subgroups. We argue that the implied social contract represents an important construct that helps to identify whether individuals engage in privacy protection behavior.     

Leaders under pressure: time pressure and state core self-evaluations as antecedents of transformational leadership behaviour

ABSTRACT

This study examines situational antecedents of transformational leadership by (a) studying the effect of time pressure on the emergence of transformational leadership behaviours, and (b) examining the mediating role of leaders’ state core self-evaluations. Twice per day for 10 consecutive working days, 42 leaders reported on their state core self-evaluations, transformational leadership behaviours and the time pressure they experienced, yielding 531 observations. Using multilevel path analysis, we found that time pressure had an indirect effect on transformational leadership through leaders’ state core self-evaluations. This mediated relationship was curvilinear; with time pressure having little to no effect on transformational leadership via state core self-evaluations when time pressure is below a leader’s average level of time pressure. However, once this characteristic average level is exceeded, time pressure has a negative effect on transformational leadership via its negative relationship with state core self-evaluations, and this relationship becomes stronger for increasing levels of time pressure.     

The interaction between discriminative stimuli and outcomes during instrumental learning

Rats were trained on a biconditional discrimination in which the delivery of a food pellet stimulus signalled that pressing on one of two levers would be reinforced, whereas the delivery of a sucrose solution stimulus signalled that the reward was contingent on pressing the other lever. The outcome was the same food type as the discriminative stimulus in the congruent group but the other food type in the incongruent group. Both responses were rewarded with the same outcome in the same group. All the three groups learned the discrimination at statistically indistinguishable rates. Prefeeding one of the outcomes selectively reduced the associated response thereby demonstrating that responding was mediated by a representation of the outcome. Moreover, the outcome of one trial controlled responding on the next trial in accord with the stimulus function of the food type. These results are discussed in relation to the associative structures mediating the discriminative control of instrumental performance.     

Smartphone Use,Work–Home Interference,and Burnout: A Diary Study on the Role of Recovery

This diary study examines the impact of daily recovery experiences on daily work–home interference (WHI) and daily burnout symptoms within a group of smartphone users. A total of 69 employees using smartphones on the initiative of their employer completed a diary questionnaire on five successive workdays (N = 293 data points). We hypothesised that particularly for intensive smartphone users it would be important to engage in activities fostering psychological detachment and relaxation in order to reduce the risk of WHI. We predicted that smartphone use would be positively related to WHI. Finally, we predicted that the positive relationship between WHI and state levels of burnout would be stronger for intensive smartphone users. Overall, the results of multi‐level analyses supported these hypotheses. The findings emphasise the importance of a clear organisational policy regarding smartphone use during after‐work hours.