The role of error‐correction procedures in the reinforcement of errors

In Study 1 three different error‐correction procedures and a trial‐and‐error procedure were implemented in a Japanese word/phrase receptive identification task. Training procedures differed in the specific type of error that evoked error‐correction feedback. Outcomes indicated that when the error‐correction consequence was contingent on incorrect responses, incorrect responses predominated initially. When this feedback consequence followed no response, non‐responding initially prevailed. Task mastery was achieved in fewer trials with error‐correction procedures than with the no prompt/trial‐and‐error. However, post‐mastery probes 1 week after mastery indicated retention was greater for participants in the trial‐and‐error training condition. These patterns indicated that the feedback prompt itself could be functioning as a positive reinforcer. Demonstration of this effect would have been more definitive had individual participants been exposed to each experimental condition, and the limited number of participants in the trial‐and‐error group weakened conclusions from Study 1. These outcomes necessitated procedural replication. The initial question remained unanswered: if feedback were delivered contingent on trainee request and not contingent on errors, how would this affect errors and retention? Study 2, with a prompt‐request (‘Show me’) answered this question. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Empiricist Conception of the Relation Between Metaphysics and Science

It is widely acknowledged that metaphysical assumptions, commitments and presuppositions play an important role in science. Yet according to the empiricist there is no place for metaphysics as traditionally understood in the scientific enterprise. In this paper I aim to take a first step towards reconciling these seemingly irreconcilable claims. In the first part of the paper I outline a conception of metaphysics and its relation to science that should be congenial to empiricists, motivated by van Fraassen’s work on ‘stances’. There has been a considerable about of recent work devoted to van Fraassen’s ‘stance’ view, but it has not on the whole been noticed that the view has the potential to motivate a general empiricist conception of the relation between science and metaphysics. In the second and third sections I discuss two examples from biology to illustrate this conception: metaphysical punctuationism, and its relation to and influence on the thesis of punctuated equilibrium; and dialectical biology as defended by Levins and Lewontin.

     

Coping dimensions, life stress, and adolescent substance use: a latent growth analysis

The relation of seven coping dimensions to substance (tobacco, alcohol, marijuana) use was tested with a sample of 1,668 participants assessed at mean age 12.5 years and two yearly follow-ups. An associative latent-growth model showed one index of engagement (behavioral coping) to be inversely related to initial level of adolescent use and growth over time in peer use. Three indices of disengagement (anger coping, helpless coping, and hangout coping) were positively related to initial levels of peer use and adolescent use and to growth in adolescent use. Life stress was positively related to initial levels for peer use and adolescent use and to growth in adolescent use. Moderation tests indicated that effects of coping were significantly greater at higher level of stress; behavioral coping buffered the effects of disengagement. Effects of life stress were greater for girls than for boys. Results are discussed with reference to mechanisms of coping-substance use relationships.     

Dyadic Influence of Adverse Childhood Experiences: Counseling Implications for Mental and Relational Health

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) predict physical and mental health. We examined dyadic differences in intimate partner relationship health by ACE score among couples with low to moderate income enrolled in a relationship education program. Overall, we found a high prevalence of ACEs, disproportionate representation in the highest risk ACE group, and a significant effect between ACEs and indicators of mental and relational health. Implications for counselors include support for an ACE‐informed approach to couples counseling services, as well as a holistic and systemic view of mental and relational health.     

Benchmarking Community-Based Couple Therapy: Considering Measurement Reactivity

Couple therapy has been shown to be effective in randomized clinical trials; however, results from naturalistic couple therapy have been less consistent. This study utilized a benchmarking approach to compare the effectiveness of couple therapy in a community-based setting with findings from efficacy treatments, such as treatment within randomized clinical trials. The current study is the largest couple therapy sample published to date (N = 3,347 couples). Clients in couple therapy were asked to provide initial and weekly ratings of symptomology on the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2). We found that treatment effect sizes found at community clinics were smaller than efficacy studies (i.e., the benchmark). However, when taking into account measurement reactivity, the effect sizes were comparable. This is the first benchmarking study for community-based couple therapy, allowing for meaningful comparisons and understanding of outcomes in real-world couple therapy. Implications for the field are offered in terms of evaluating community-based psychotherapy studies with benchmarking for couple therapy. Results of this study provide clinicians and researchers a way to meaningfully compare couple therapy outcomes, accounting for differences in community-based practices and randomized clinical trials. This benchmark also underscores the impact of measurement sensitivity, an issue commonly overlooked in psychotherapy research and practice.     

Topographies and functions of emerging problem behavior and appropriate requests in neurotypical preschoolers

The current study builds on a small but growing body of research evaluating the formal and functional characteristics of emerging problem behavior before it becomes harmful and requires costly treatment. The researchers tested 21 preschool children's sensitivity to establishing operations that commonly precede severe problem behavior. Sensitivity tests were embedded in a small group play context to optimize safety, efficiency, and ecological validity. The tests screened several levels of problem-behavior severity as well as the presence of adaptive alternatives (i.e., communication) to problem behavior. Overall, outcomes suggested sources of reinforcement for minor- and moderate-severity problem behavior in 86% of children. Only 17% of children exhibiting problem behavior also engaged in appropriate requests in the same condition(s) as problem behavior. The present data are compared to published functional analyses of severe behavior. The results are discussed as a preliminary step towards a function-based model of risk identification and behavioral prevention of severe problem behavior.     

Attitudes and Decisions about Sexual Offenders: A Comparison of Laypersons and Professionals

The current study examines the inherent biases about sexual offending held by 123 laypersons and 120 professionals (i.e. probation officers and therapists). In order to determine the extent of these biases, a series of brief newspaper articles were constructed to depict cases of sexual offenders. Each article comprised several combinations of key variables, including offender type, level of admission, and the presence of alcohol. Participants read a series of three fabricated articles and then completed a questionnaire regarding attitudes about the various offenders. The results indicate important differences between the lay and professional samples. Laypersons deemed sex offenders more favourably in terms of character, accountability, and risk for sexual recidivism. However, both groups showed some similar perceptions about sexual offending. Specifically, both groups evaluated child molesters more negatively than exhibitionists and in some cases, rapists. These findings highlight the need for continuing education for professionals in order to attenuate the effects of prejudicial attitudes. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adult Age Differences in the Ability to Mentally Transform Object and Body Stimuli

ABSTRACT

Cognitive neuroscience literature suggests a strong dissociation between the ability to mentally transform object and body stimuli (Hegarty & Waller, 2004 Hegarty, M. and Waller, D. 2004. A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities. Intelligence, 32(2): 175–191. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] ). However, little is known about how this ability changes with age. This dissociation was explored in 20 younger (19–24 years) and 20 older (65–87 years) adults. Mental rotation of object stimuli was demonstrated for both age groups, suggesting that the neuro-cognitive network involved with performing (object-based) mental transformations is relatively preserved in older age. Compared to young adults, older adults displayed the greatest decline in performance efficiency for the whole-body task. The authors propose that an age-related decline in the integrity of body-schema information may account for this change.