苏格拉底的反证法简论

我这里所讲的苏格拉底,是柏拉图早期对话中的苏格拉底。依我看来,柏拉图在对话中重建了这个历史人物的哲学方法和哲学学说。这里,我将着重谈谈我认为是苏格拉底从事哲学研究的主要方法,我把它称之为“标准反证法”。这个名称有别于R.鲁滨逊等人的“间接反证法”。他们之所以称它为“间接反证法”,是因为在反证时,驳斥的论点可能被用作对此论点进行反驳的前提。在这里,苏格拉底不受所提出之前提真理性的束缚,而由它推出     

论概念

1.知识分为(a)普遍承认的概念(太阳、月亮、智慧、灵魂)和(b)有待证明的概念(例如确证宇宙是由包含在另一球体中的球面组成的;或者是在时间中被创造的)。每个概念都必定有一个更普遍的概念在它之前存在着。但是,那个概念的最终建立却无需和在它之先的概念相关联。必然的存在和可能的存在就是这样的概念。这样的概念无需人们去构想一个包含着它们的东西,它们本身就是清楚、明白的自明概     

唯心主义和宗教的相似与区别

在阶级社会里,宗教和哲学唯心主义之间的相似和密切联系,是毋庸置疑的。无论是宗教还是哲学唯心主义,都是对世界的一种不正确的看法,都是一种错误的、歪曲的、颠倒的世界观。宗教和哲学唯心主义都反映这些和那些阶级的利益,它们过去和现在多半是阶级社会里的思想斗争中的同盟军。以上这些观点都是下述看法的依据,即在我们的文献里,充分而又广泛地提到宗教和哲学唯心主义是一些不同的现象,但就其本质来说,又是同一     

给智力重新下定义

日本东京有一个特别的音乐教学大纲,规定儿童在6岁时用小提琴演奏维瓦尔第协奏曲,在10岁时演奏莫扎特作品,这时他们都还不知怎样读谱呢。在密克罗内西亚的加罗林群岛,一位帕罗威族小男孩,深夜解缆出海,应用他了解的关于波浪、风向和星星的知识,仅靠头脑中的地图进行观察,就可到达几百个小岛中的任何一个岛上。在波士顿,一个正在矫正阅读障碍的少年,竟编制了利用报上公布     

The timing of natural prehension movements

Prehension movements were studied by film in 7 adult subjects. Transportation of the hand to the target-object location had features very similar to any aiming arm movement, that is, it involved a fast-velocity initial phase and a low-velocity final phase. The peak velocity of the movement was highly correlated with its amplitude, although total movement duration tended to remain invariant when target distance was changed. The low-velocity phase consistently began after about 75% of movement time had elapsed. This ration was maintained for different movement amplitudes. Formation of the finger grip occurred during hand transportation. Fingers were first stretched and then began to close in anticipation to contact with the object. The onset of the closure phase was highly correlated to the beginning of the low velocity phase of transportation. This pattern for both transportation and finger grip formation was maintained in conditions whether visual feedback from the moving limb was present or not. Implications of these findings for the central programming of multisegmental movements are discussed.     

幼儿不同情绪状态对其智力操作的影响

本实验结果显示:1)在16至18个月的婴儿中,愉快和痛苦情绪对其问题解决的操作有不同的影响。愉快组被试比痛苦组被试的操作效果明显优越;体现在“直接抓取”、“注视”和“顺利获得”三种操作策略中。2)愉快和痛苦两种情绪的不同强度与操作效果之间的相关是不同的。愉快组显示为一种曲线相关,即过高或过低的情绪唤醒不如适中的唤醒水平使操作效果达到最优。痛苦组显示为一种直线相关,即痛苦强度越大,操作效果越差。     

Changing the response unit from a single peck to a fixed number of pecks in fixed-interval schedules

Each of three pigeons was studied first under a standard fixed-interval schedule. With the fixed interval held constant, the schedule was changed to a second-order schedule in which the response unit was the behavior on a small fixed-ratio schedule (first a fixed-ratio 10 and then a fixed-ratio 20 schedule). That is, every completion of the fixed-ratio schedule produced a 0.7-sec darkening of the key and reset the response count to zero for the next ratio. The first fixed-ratio completed after the fixed-interval schedule elapsed produced the 0.7-sec blackout followed immediately by food. These manipulations were carried out under two different fixed-interval durations for each bird ranging from 3 min to 12 min. The standard fixed-interval schedules produced the typical pause after reinforcement followed by responding at a moderate rate until the next reinforcement. The second-order schedules also engendered a pause after reinforcement, but responding occurred in bursts separated by brief pauses after each blackout. For a particular fixed-interval duration, post-reinforcement pauses increased slightly as the number of pecks in the response unit increased despite large differences in the rate and pattern of key pecking. Post-reinforcement pause increased with the fixed-interval duration under all response units. These data confirm that the allocation of time between pausing and responding is relatively independent of the rate and topography of responding after the pause.     

Good behavior game: effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom

Out-of-seat and talking-out behaviors were studied in a regular fourth-grade class that included several "problem children". After baseline rates of the inappropriate behaviors were obtained, the class was divided into two teams "to play a game". Each out-of-seat and talking-out response by an individual child resulted in a mark being placed on the chalkboard, which meant a possible loss of privileges by all members of the student's team. In this manner a contingency was arranged for the inappropriate behavior of each child while the consequence (possible loss of privileges) of the child's behavior was shared by all members of this team as a group. The privileges were events which are available in almost every classroom, such as extra recess, first to line up for lunch, time for special projects, stars and name tags, as well as winning the game. The individual contingencies for the group consequences were successfully applied first during math period and then during reading period. The experimental analysis involved elements of both reversal and multiple baseline designs.