The logic of causal methods in social science

Two kinds of causal inference rules which are widely used by social scientists are investigated. Two conceptions of causation also widely used are explicated — the INUS and probabilistic conceptions of causation. It is shown that the causal inference rules which link correlation, a kind of partial correlation, and a conception of causation areinvalid. It is concluded anew methodology is required for causal inference.     

Social intimacy: An important moderator of stressful life events

Two studies were conducted to explore the role of social intimacy in predicting the individual's response to stress. In the first study the experimenter reinforced the experimental subjects' verbalizations during an interview on a fixed schedule for the first 3 minutes, withdrawing reinforcement for the final 4 minutes. The control group received reinforcement on a fixed schedule for the total 7 minutes. Subjects scoring low on a measure of intimacy disclosed less personal material during the withdrawal period in the experimental condition than in the control condition in contrast to high scoring subjects who maintained their level of disclosure for both parts of the interview. In the second study, previously experienced life change events were assessed. Individuals lacking a current intimacy were found to be prone to higher levels of emotional disturbance especially when many previous negative or few positive life change events had occurred.     

An awareness approach to the covert symptoms of stuttering

Speech-language clinicians working with the confirmed stuttering client are often faced with the clinical management of the covert symptoms of stuttering in addition to the more observable and measurable overt symptoms. The authors report the successful use of awareness techniques to exaggerate the subjective experience of these covert symptoms and encourage the use of these techniques as an adjunct to the counseling and desensitization procedures traditionally employed. A transcribed clinical management session in which several awareness techniques are used to aid the client in an introspective examination of “anticipation of stuttering,” is analyzed in order to reach some specific recommendations for using awareness techniques in the clinical management of the covert symptoms of stuttering.     

Age and cohort effects on personality factor scores across sexes and racial/ethnic groups

Substantial differences exist across ethnic groups and sexes in generational changes in status among groups residing in Hawaii. Despite these generational differences across groups, age differences in personality are remarkably consistent across sexes and racial/ethnic groups, and the few Sex x Age, Ethnicity x Age or Sex x Ethnicity x Age interactions account for little variance in scores. It is concluded that age/generational differences in personality factor scores in these populations result from age and not, to any major degree, from cohort effects.     

Natural sniffing gives optimum odour perception for humans

The characteristics of human sniffing episodes during odour perception have been described in an earlier paper, where it has been suggested that the techniques used by individuals may be close to those providing optimum perception. To investigate this suggestion, threshold and intensity tests with butanol, cyclohexanone, and pentyl acetate have been carried out on twenty-one subjects. Olfactory responses obtained by using natural sniffing techniques were compared with those where the number of sniffs, interval between sniffs, and size of sniffs were varied. The results indicate that it is very difficult to improve on the efficiency of sniffing techniques of individuals and that a single natural sniff provides as much information about the presence and intensity of an odour as do seven or more sniffs. A single natural sniff and the first sniff of a a natural sniffing episode were shown to have similar characteristics and most significantly both were unaffected by changes in the concentration and type of odour. Overall, the results indicate that humans achieve optimum odour perception during threshold and intensity measures with their natural multiple-sniff technique or with a single sniff. For the 'average' human this occurs with a sniff of inhalation rate 30 1 min-1, volume 200 cm3, and duration 0.4 s. The use of several sniffs in a sniffing episode appears to be a confirmatory action rather than a necessary one, except for the perception of odour mixtures where several sniffs are likely to be needed to aid discrimination of the components. Data from the present and earlier study provide the information necessary for the development of a standard olfactometer and standard procedures for measuring the olfactory responses of humans.     

Genetic foundation of social behaviour

This contribution was invited by the Editor, and translated by him from the German. Dr Schlegel is a leading exponent of the large group of German workers in the field of constitutional psychology and medicine. He lectured on these topics at the University of Hamburg before being forced to leave his post in the first half of the 1970s by militant students during the German equivalent of the Chinese “cultural revolution”. His work, which fits well into the new school of socio-biology, is relatively unknown in English-speaking countries and, in view of its originality and importance, should be more widely read. Dr Schlegel, in line with socio-biological thinking generally, has not confined himself to a narrow study of correlations between physique and personality, but has also tried to integrate his findings into a wider social context.     

A comparison of observed and reported adult-infant interactions: Effects of perceived sex

Interactions of 16 adults (eight married couples whose youngest child was less than 2 1/2 years old) with a single actor infant, dressed as either a male or a female, were recorded and analyzed in four categories: direction of gaze, facial expression, physical contact with the infant, and toy used. After the interaction period, a 45-minute interview on child rearing was conducted with each member of the couple. Observed interactions were then compared with interview data. The results support previous studies which show that both male and female parents behave differently toward unfamiliar infants on the basis of perceived sex. However, parents, especially mothers, appeared unaware of their differential treatment of male and female infants. These results suggest subtle sex-typing of infants by adults.     

Working through a group's fantasy of the deceased leader's wish for the group's continuation

This paper reflects the working through of a group's fantasy that the deceased group leader wished the group to continue. As in any defense, the fantasy protected members from the pain of the finality of the leader's death. This article reveals the subjective experience concerning the effect of the leader's death on the group and members' intrapsychic struggle to separate and individuate from the deceased leader, while attending to and striving toward the group's continuation. The group's painful and growing individuation enabled the group to follow its own tasks without the spector of the deceased leader.     

Paid work,child care,and housework: A national survey of high school seniors' preferences for sharing responsibilities between husband and wife

A large national sample of high school seniors rated their preferences for the allocation of work and family duties within their own prospective marriages. The results indicate that many seniors favor half-time or full-time work for wives without children. On the other hand, the majority prefer that the mother of preschool children stay home, although half-time work is acceptable to many. Respondents who are male or White or did not have a working mother themselves are somewhat more conservative on these issues. Virtually all seniors view less than full-time employment by the husband as unacceptable. With regard to child care and housework, most seniors prefer equal sharing between the spouses. A comparison of four senior classes reveals a slight trend from 1976 to 1979 toward increased sharing of duties.