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111.
Bruce Russell 《Erkenntnis》2004,61(2-3):245-255
Contextualists often argue from examples where it seems true to say in one context that a person knows something but not true to say that in another context where skeptical hypotheses have been introduced. The skeptical hypotheses can be moderate, simply mentioning what might be the case or raising questions about what a person is certain of, or radical, where scenarios about demon worlds, brains in vats, The Matrix, etc., are introduced. I argue that the introduction of these skeptical hypotheses leads people to fallaciously infer that it is no longer true to say that the relevant person knows. I believe that that is a better explanation of the so-called intuition that the person does not know than the contextualists who claim that raising these skeptical hypotheses changes the standards that determine when it is true to say S knows that P. At the end I raise the possibility that contextualists might defend their view on pragmatic rather than skeptical grounds by arguing that the standards of evidence rise when more is at stake in a practical sense. 相似文献
112.
Spears R Gordijn E Dijksterhuis A Stapel DA 《Personality & social psychology bulletin》2004,30(5):605-616
Whereas previous research has shown automatic behavior conforming to outgroup stereotypes, the authors demonstrate automatic behavioral contrast away from a stereotype/trait associated with an outgroup (Study 1 and 2) and point to the importance of an "us-them" intergroup comparison in this process. In Study 1, participants colored pictures more messily when neatness was associated with an outgroup rather than the ingroup. In Study 2, using a different behavior, participants primed with busy business people reacted faster than controls (assimilation) but became slower when their student ingroup identity was activated (contrast). Subliminally priming an "us-them" intergroup comparison set undermined the accessibility of outgroup stereotypic words (Study 3), especially for those higher in prejudice (Study 4). This suggests that people automatically distance themselves from outgroup attributes when intergroup antagonism is cued or chronic. Implications for the role of self and comparison processes in automatic behavior are discussed. 相似文献
113.
Wade NJ 《Perception》2004,33(7):869-889
Visual neuroscience is considered to be a contemporary concern, based in large part on relating characteristics of neural functioning to visual experience. It presupposes a detailed knowledge of neural activity for which the neuron doctrine is a fundamental tenet. However, long before either the neuron doctrine had been advanced or the nerve cell had been described, attempts were made to estimate the dimensions of nerve fibres from measures of visual resolution. In the seventeenth century, the microscopes of Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek were unable to resolve structures as small as nerves adequately. However, it was not Hooke's microscope that led to an estimate of the dimensions of nerve fibres but his experiments on the limits of visual resolution. Hooke determined that a separation of one minute of arc was the minimum that could normally be seen. Descartes had earlier speculated that the retina consisted of the terminations of fibres of the optic nerve, and that their size defined the limits of what could be seen. Estimates of the diameters of nerve fibres were made on the basis of human visual acuity by Porterfield in 1738; he calculated the diameters of nerve fibres in the retina as one 7200th part of an inch (0.0035 mm), based on the resolution of one minute of arc as the minimum visible. In the same year, Jurin questioned the reliability of such estimates because of variations in visual resolution with different stimuli. The measurement of visual acuity was refined by Mayer in 1755, with dots, gratings, and grids used as stimuli. In the 1830s, Treviranus fused the microscopic and acuity approaches to determine the dimensions of nerve fibres. His indirect estimates of the dimensions of retinal fibres were close to those derived from microscopic observation. However, the suggestion that the retina consisted of terminations of nerve fibres influenced his detailed illustrations of its microscopic structure. Contrary to the situation that obtained after the microscopic structure of the retina had been established, a function of vision (acuity) was used to determine the dimensions of the structures (retinal elements) that were thought to mediate it. 相似文献
114.
115.
An ongoing assumption made by sleep researchers is that since dreams are more often recalled on awakening from rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, dreams must occur more often during this stage of sleep. An alternative hypothesis is that cognition occurs throughout sleep, but the recall of this mentation differs on awakening. When a dream is not reported on awakening, there is no method of establishing whether it did not happen or was forgotten. The aim of the present study was to investigate this issue using an eye movement (EM) signal verification technique. Participants were instructed to produce an EM signal whenever they heard a tone. Tones were presented at increasing volume during Stage 2 and REM sleep until EM signal verification was observed. Ninety seconds after signal verification, participants were awakened and asked if they remembered hearing the tone or responding with the EM signal. Such recollection of signal verified tone (SVT) presentations was significantly less after Stage 2 sleep (65%) compared to REM sleep (100%) presentations. Furthermore, SVT recall was significantly correlated with reported dream recall frequency, suggesting the same processes involved in recalling SVTs might also underlie dream recall. 相似文献
116.
Studies of human classification learning using functional neuroimaging have suggested that basal ganglia and medial temporal lobe memory systems may interact during learning. We review these results and outline a set of possible mechanisms for such interactions. Effective connectivity analyses suggest that interaction between basal ganglia and medial temporal lobe are mediated by prefrontal cortex rather than by direct connectivity between regions. A review of possible neurobiological mechanisms suggests that interactions may be driven by neuromodulatory systems in addition to mediation by interaction of inputs to prefrontal cortical neurons. These results suggest that memory system interactions may reflect multiple mechanisms that combine to optimize behavior based on experience. 相似文献
117.
The results of a functional analysis showed that inappropriate sexual behaviors exhibited by a 9-year-old boy who had been diagnosed with traumatic brain injury were maintained by positive reinforcement in the form of social attention. An intervention consisting of functional communication training and extinction resulted in reduced levels of inappropriate sexual behaviors. 相似文献
118.
Put your money where your mouth is! Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
van Zomeren M Spears R Fischer AH Leach CW 《Journal of personality and social psychology》2004,87(5):649-664
Insights from appraisal theories of emotion are used to integrate elements of theories on collective action. Three experiments with disadvantaged groups systematically manipulated procedural fairness (Study 1), emotional social support (Study 2), and instrumental social support (Study 3) to examine their effects on collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy. Results of structural equation modeling showed that procedural fairness and emotional social support affected the group-based anger pathway (reflecting emotion-focused coping), whereas instrumental social support affected the group efficacy pathway (reflecting problem-focused coping), constituting 2 distinct pathways to collective action tendencies. Analyses of the means suggest that collective action tendencies become stronger the more fellow group members "put their money where their mouth is." The authors discuss how their dual pathway model integrates and extends elements of current approaches to collective action. 相似文献
119.
The formation of attitudes toward novel objects was examined as a function of exploratory behavior. An initial experiment, in which participants played a computer game that required them to learn which stimuli, when sampled, produced favorable or unfavorable outcomes, demonstrated learning, attitude formation, and generalization to novel objects. The findings also revealed 2 interesting valence asymmetries: a learning asymmetry involving better learning for negatively valenced than positively valenced objects and a generalization asymmetry involving stronger generalization as a function of negative than of positive attitudes. Findings from 4 experiments led to an explanation of the learning asymmetry in terms of information gain being contingent on approach behavior and related the generalization asymmetry to a negativity bias that weighs resemblance to a known negative more heavily than resemblance to a positive. 相似文献
120.