A comparison of objective measures of activity and distractibility in hyperactive and nonhyperactive children

In a 15-minute free-play and a 5-minute test session, 13 measures of activity, distractibility, and parental ratings of activity were obtained on three groups of children, consisting of 16 boys referred to a psychological services center for evaluation of possible hyperactivity, 16 referred to that same center for problems other than hyperactivity, and 20 obtained from the local community. Subjects were boys with average intelligence between the ages of 4 and 12 years. Results indicated that the multiple measures of activity and distractibility had significant but relatively low order correlations among themselves. These relationships varied as a function of the subject group. However, there was no sonsistent relationship between the measures of activity and distractibility. The pattern of relationships obtained suggested that both activity level and distractibility are not homogeneous, unidimensional constructs. Results also indicated that boys referred for hyperactivity displayed greater wrist activity in free play, tended to display greater ankle activity in free play, had significantly correlated wrist and ankle activity, and were rated by their parents as more active than other children. This pattern suggested a global restlessness in children referred for hyperactivity that distinguishes them from other children.     

The meaning of observed violence: Real vs. fictional violence and consequent effects on aggression and emotional arousal

Sixty male subjects were either attacked or treated neutrally by a confederate, after which each saw a videotape of two men fighting. Subjects were informed that fight was either real or fictitious or were given no explanation of it. Subjects who had previously been attacked and had observed the fight under a set to perceive it as real were subsequently more punitive in their treatment of the confederate than subjects in all other conditions. The combination of prior attack and observation of real violence also sustained blood pressure (BP) at near the level produced by the attack, whereas BP of attacked subjects in the other conditions declined during the time the fight was observed. Palmar sweat measures revealed that observation of real violence was more arousing than observation of fictitious fighting. The results are discussed in terms of the effects that the reality of observed violence has on emotional arousal.     

Discriminability and criterion differences between extraverts and introverts during vigilance

In a signal detection task introverts were better able than extraverts to distinguish between the signal and noise distribution (p < .001) and also set a higher criterion point for their responses (p < .01). The results show that superior vigilance in introverts reported by other investigators is due to two processes.     

Sex differences in rats' response to novelty measured by activity and preference

Rats were familiarized to one compartment of a test box and then given access to this and a novel compartment. Females spent more time in the novel compartment than males did and this difference was found to be independent of a possible difference in familiarity with the familiar compartment arising from the females' higher frequency of ambulating and rearing with sniffing during familiarization. This is evidence of a sex difference in response to novelty independent of activity differences. Females also had shorter approach latencies to the novel compartment. These sex differences could reflect differences in either fearfulness or curiosity.     

Development of verbal control over bizarre gestures of retardates through imitative and nonimitative reinforcement procedures

Two retardates, manifesting hand gestures and minimal instructional control, were trained by imitative reinforcement procedures to imitate a response that was in contrast to gesturing. Next, with the contrast response continuing to be imitatively reinforced, gesturing was reduced by nonimitative reinforcement procedures; while providing facial and gesture cues, the adult said, "Do not do this". Imitative and nonimitative procedures were found to have the same effects on the contrast response as on the gesturing response, such that imitative procedures increased both responses, whereas nonimitative procedures decreased both. Nonperformance of gesturing was further maintained when (1) explicit verbal directions for nongesturing were superimposed upon the demonstrational-facial-verbal cues as these collective stimuli were faded out and (2) food reinforcers for nongesturing were gradually removed while social consequences continued to be administered.     

Temporal contiguity in electric aversion therapy for cigarette smoking

Seventy dependent heavy smokers (32 cigarettes per day) were randomly assigned to one of five treatment and control procedures: (1) electric aversion therapy, involving ten 20-trial sessions of shocks contiguous with the smoking act. (2) simulated electric aversion. with non-contiguous shocks, (3) non-shock smoking sessions, to control for stimulus satiation and negative practice effects. (4) simple support and attention from therapist, (5) no-treatment. Before treatment, simple ‘self-monitoring’ and ‘self-control’ reduced cigarette consumption by an average of 12% (p < 0.001) and 26% (p < 0.001) respectively. Thirty-four of the 56 treated subjects (61%) were able to stop smoking compared with two out of fourteen (14%) of the no-treatment controls (p < 0.005). Treatment was highly effective at reducing and stopping smoking during the 4-week course and for 2 weeks afterwards (p < 0.005). Its effect was rapid, but not immediate. Outcome was virtually decided after 1 week (five sessions); subjects who had not stopped or almost stopped at this stage were most unlikely to respond later on (p < 0.001). All four treatments were equally effective, regular attendance for 15 min of simple support being as effective as the treatments involving additional 45-min sessions with a second therapist. The effects of contiguous vs non-contiguous shocks did not differ. A motor response was conditioned in 19 of the 28 subjects who received shocks but this was therapeutically irrelevant. The clinical outcome depended on the kind of subject rather than the kind of treatment. Those who were depressed, with poor psychiatric adjustment and a high Eysenck-Scale P score tended to do badly, while those who initially expressed high confidence in the outcome were more likely to succeed (p < 0.001). It is concluded that traditional conditioning processes do not contribute significantly to the clinical response of human subjects to electric aversion therapy for cigarette smoking.     

Behavioural contrast and preference in a double chained schedule

Pigeons peck faster during a signal for reward (S+) when that signal alternates with one for absence of reward (S-). This “contrast effect” has been shown to involve diminished preference for S + compared with a stimulus not involved in a discrimination. The present experiment demonstrates that the signal produced by pecks to S+ in a chained schedule is responded to in proportion to the contrast effect during S +. The result suggests that a prior interpretation of contrast, in terms of Amsel's frustration theory, is not the correct one.