Toward a general theory of motivation: Problems,challenges, opportunities,and the big picture

Motivation theories have tended to focus on specific motivations, leaving open the intellectually and scientifically challenging problem of how to construct a general theory of motivation. The requirements for such a theory are presented here. The primacy of motivation emphasizes that cognition, emotion, agency, and other psychological processes exist to serve motivation. Both state (impulses) and trait (basic drives) forms of motivation must be explained, and their relationship must be illuminated. Not all motivations are the same, and indeed it is necessary to explain how motivation evolved from the simple desires of simple animals into the complex, multifaceted forms of human motivation. Motivation responds to the local environment but may also adapt to it, such as when desires increase after satiation or diminish when satisfaction is chronically unavailable. Addiction may be a special case of motivation—but perhaps it is much less special or different than prevailing cultural stereotypes suggest. The relationship between liking and wanting, and the self-regulatory management of motivational conflict, also require explanation by an integrative theory.     

Home-based smoking prevention program Smoke-free Kids on smoking-related cognitions: Secondary outcomes from a cluster randomized controlled trial

Objectives: The home-based smoking prevention programme ‘Smoke-free Kids’ did not have an effect on primary outcome smoking initiation. A possible explanation may be that the programme has a delayed effect. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects on the development of important precursors of smoking: smoking-related cognitions.

Methods: We used a cluster randomised controlled trial in 9- to 11-year-old children and their mothers. The intervention condition received five activity modules, including a communication sheet for mothers, by mail at four-week intervals. The control condition received a fact-based programme. Secondary outcomes were attitudes, self-efficacy and social norms. Latent growth curves analyses were used to calculate the development of cognitions over time. Subsequently, path modelling was used to estimate the programme effects on the initial level and growth of each cognition.

Results: Analyses were performed on 1398 never-smoking children at baseline. Results showed that for children in the intervention condition, perceived maternal norms increased less strongly as compared to the control condition (β = ?.10, p = .03). No effects were found for the other cognitions.

Conclusion: Based on the limited effects, we do not assume that the programme will have a delayed effect on smoking behaviour later during adolescence.     

Knowledge of and Interest in Genetic Results Among Parkinson Disease Patients and Caregivers

The purpose of the study is to investigate Parkinson disease (PD) patients’ and caregivers’ knowledge of and interest in genetic testing. Gaucher disease (GD) results from recessive mutations in glucocerebrosidase (GBA). Both heterozygote GBA carriers and GD patients are at greater risk for PD. Studies regarding knowledge of and interest in genetic testing have been limited and have not offered genetic results to participants. In this study, 353 PD patients and 180 caregivers were recruited to a PD genetic study. The association between GD, GBA mutations and PD was described to participants who reported their familiarity with genetic terms, answered questions on genetic concepts, and indicated their interest in knowing if they may have GD (two GBA mutations) and other genetic information that could impact their health. Ninety-three-percent of participants were interested in receiving GBA results; however, only 51.6 % of PD participants and 55.6 % of caregivers knew that “scientists have identified genes associated with a higher risk of developing PD.” PD patients may benefit from education and genetic counseling on the implications of genetic testing.     

Use of Genetic Tests among Neurologists and Psychiatrists: Knowledge,Attitudes, Behaviors,and Needs for Training

This study explores neurologists’ and psychiatrists’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning genetic tests. Psychiatrists (n?=?5,316) and neurologists (n?=?2,167) on the American Medical Association master list who had agreed to receive surveys were sent an email link to a survey about their attitudes and practices regarding genetic testing; 372 psychiatrists and 163 neurologists responded. A higher proportion of neurologists (74 %) than psychiatrists (14 %) who responded to the survey had ordered genetic testing in the past 6 months. Overall, most respondents thought that genetic tests should be performed more frequently, but almost half believed genetic tests could harm patients psychologically and considered legal protections inadequate. Almost half of neurologists (49 %) and over 75 % of psychiatrists did not have a genetics professional to whom to refer patients; those who had ordered genetic tests were more likely than those who did not do so to have access to a genetic counselor. Of respondents, 10 % had received patient requests not to document genetic information and 15 % had received inquiries about direct-to-consumer genetic testing. Neurologists reported themselves to be relatively more experienced and knowledgeable about genetics than psychiatrists. These data, the first to examine several important issues concerning knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of neurologists and psychiatrists regarding genetic tests, have important implications for future practice, research, and education.     

Shortening the Home Environment Inventory: A Polytomous Item Response Theory approach

Assessing an Indian home presents a great challenge to researchers because of its’ cultural uniqueness, complex family structure, and social practices. Currently, the home environment inventory (HEI) is the most widely applied Indian scale for assessment of home environment of school-going children. However, administration of the scale becomes cumbersome in a testing situation because of its lengthy nature. The present study aimed at shortening the 100-item HEI so as to reduce the respondents’ burden while preserving the quality of information simultaneously. Data were collected from 548 adolescent school students (Mean age?=?14 years; SD?=?1.24) from Bengali Hindu middle-class families and analyzed using a polytomous item response theory approach. A shortened version of the scale was derived through Principal Component Analysis and compared with the original scale based on the fit measures obtained through confirmatory factor analysis. Further, a preliminary validation of the shortened scale was done by comparing it with the original scale in another adolescent sample (n?=?256). Results bear evidence of statistically valid applicability of the shortened version of HEI.     

The Stroop test: A developmental study in a French children sample aged 7 to 12 years

The Stroop test is a commonly used task in psychology to assess executive function and more specifically inhibition. International studies consistently show improved Stroop task performance with age, whereas available French normative data displays the opposite pattern, with poor clinical sensibility (Albaret & Migliore, 1999). To provide an alternative and useful Stroop test for children, we examined developmental data based on a well-known French protocol validated in adult (GREFEX study group, 2001). The three-standard conditions of the Stroop task (i.e. naming, reading and interference) were administered to 120 typically developing school children (7–12 years), while taking into account the effects of gender, parental educational level and intelligence (both crystallized and fluid intelligence, as measured by the Wechsler intelligence scale). The time to complete each condition (in seconds) was recorded, as well as the number of uncorrected and corrected errors. Results show a continuous increase of performance in “reading” and “naming” control conditions between 7 and 12 years, suggesting an improvement in the lexical access speed and the automation of decoding abilities during reading. Most importantly, a significant reduction of time Stroop effect with age was found (difference between interference and naming conditions), but no interaction with gender. Stroop performances are related to fluid intelligence once age is statistically controlled, but not to parental educational level. The developmental pattern found from the Stroop GREFEX version is consistent with international data and more broadly with executive function and inhibition development. These findings open the prospect of useful normative standardization of this task, with valuable clinical applications perspectives.     

Social behaviour and social cognition in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD): two sides of the same coin?

Of the triad of symptoms found in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), that is, social impairments, communication difficulties and repetitive interests and behaviour, the social impairments are the most stable and common throughout the lifespan. They typically manifest themselves in abnormalities as reciprocal interactions and difficulties in the expression and recognition of emotions. Although peer interactions become especially important during adolescence, little is known about the mentalizing abilities of high-functioning adolescents with ASD. Here, we compared the mentalizing skills and emotion recognition abilities of 21 high-functioning adolescents with ASD and 21 matched controls. All adolescents had estimated above-average verbal intelligence levels. Spontaneous social abilities and task-related social abilities were measured using questionnaires, tasks and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule. Results confirm social impairment in daily life situations in adolescents with ASD, but were not found on experimental tasks of social cognition. The use of more explicit cognitive or verbally mediating reasoning techniques and a lesser tendency of high-functioning adolescents with ASD to search for and use social information in natural environments are further discussed.     

Moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the role of negative affect in the motivation to drink in alcohol-dependent subjects undergoing protracted withdrawal

In order to understand how emotional aspects evolve and are related to craving for alcohol, different emotion-related variables were examined in relationship to craving during a protracted withdrawal. To this end state affectivity (PANAS), emotional intelligence (EI) (TEIQue), and craving (OCDS) were assessed at the onset (T1: day 1 or 2) and at the end (T2: day 14 to 18) of three-week protracted withdrawal among alcohol-dependent inpatients (DSM-IV, N = 41). A significant decrease in craving and negative affectivity (NA) was observed from T1 to T2 while EI scores remained low. At both baseline and follow-up, there was a significant moderation effect of EI on the link between NA and craving for alcohol. Negative mood at the onset of the cure was linked to craving at the end of the withdrawal period but only among patients with low trait EI scores. The merits of using psychotherapeutic approaches were discussed in the treatment of alcohol addiction.     

In the Therapist's Chair Is Clemmont E. Vontress: A Wounded Healer in Cross‐Cultural Counseling

In this interview, Clemmont E. Vontress, a pioneer of cross‐cultural counseling, reflects on his life and work. He shares personal stories about the people and events in his life that had a major impact on his theory formulation; research and clinical work; and publications in culture, race, ethnicity, and counseling. En esta entrevista, Clemmont E. Vontress, un pionero de la consejería trans‐cultural, reflexiona sobre su vida y su trabajo. Comparte historias personales sobre la gente y los acontecimientos de su vida que tuvieron un impacto significativo en la formulación de su teoría; investigación y trabajo clínico; y publicaciones sobre cultura, raza, etnicidad, y consejería.     

Guilty,free, and wise: Determinism and psychopathy diminish learning from negative emotions

Emotional experiences can bring about personal growth. For instance, feeling guilty may prompt one to learn from a mistake, and this learning can bring about different and better future behavior. Three studies found that belief in free will facilitated learning from emotional experiences, as inducing participants to disbelieve in free will was associated with reduced learning. Emotional responsiveness, as defined by low psychopathy scores, also facilitated learning from emotional experiences (Studies 2 and 3). The degree of learning associated with emotional experiences was measured by self-rating (Study 1), independent evaluations of lessons learned (Study 2), and whether participants joined a campus recycling program (after being made to feel guilty about an environmental transgression; Study 3).