Human Eye Movements During Visually Guided Stepping

Visually guided locomotion was studied in an experiment in which human subjects (N = 8) had to accurately negotiate a series of irregularly spaced stepping-stones while infrared reflectometry and electrooculography were used to continuously record their eye movements. On average, 68% of saccades made toward the next target of footfall had been completed (visual target capture had occurred) while the foot to be positioned was still on the ground; the remainder were completed in the first 300 ms of the swing phase. The subjects' gaze remained fixed on a target, on average, until 51 ms after making contact with it, with little variation. A greater amount of variation was seen in the timing of trailing footlift relative to visual target capture. Assuming that subjects sampled the visual cues as and when they were required, visual information appeared most useful when the foot to be positioned was still on the ground.     

Psychological type and counselling

Psychological type as a theory of four major personality characteristics is applied to empathy and choice of strategy. The issues of how versatile counsellors should be and of how, specifically, type can be used in counselling, are discussed. The problem of losing weight is used to illustrate how strategies may be matched with clients of different types or temperaments. Type suggests the possibilities of quicker and deeper empathy, more appropriate challenging, a wider range of strategies, and which kinds of strategy are most and least likely to be effective with which clients.     

Therapeutic Interventions

This article has two aims. One is addressed to practitioners, to say to them that too big a distinction is being drawn between interpretations and other interventions, and in particular that the term directive is being wrongly used. This militates against important moves toward the integration of different therapies. The other is addressed to researchers, to say to them that their research will be inadequate to the extent that they ignore many of the interventions used in therapy. Both of these aims are eventually served by the provision of a list of interventions running the whole continuum from non-directive to more directive. By looking at this list, we can become more aware of the range of what is possible in psychotherapy, and also of where the standard types of interpretations come in the scheme of things. It seems as though the wide range of interventions available in psychotherapy represents one of the ways in which it differs from counseling.     

Determinants of phrasing effects in rat serial pattern learning

Two experiments investigated how brief pauses introduced into serial patterns as phrasing cues would affect pattern learning in rats. In Experiment 1, a 24-element pattern consisted of eight 3-element chunks, whereas a 20-element pattern consisted of four 5-element chunks. In both patterns, 3.0-s temporal pauses placed at chunk boundaries (synchronous phrasing cues) facilitated learning compared to no phrasing. Cues "out of sync" with pattern structure (asynchronous phrasing cues) facilitated learning for the 24-element pattern and retarded learning for the 20-element pattern. Evidence suggested that in the latter case, 3.0-s pauses served as "blank" trials that induced rats to "skip" to the next serial position in sequence. In Experiment 2, shorter 0.5-s pauses served as phrasing cues in the 20-element pattern of Experiment 1. Synchronous short cues facilitated learning, whereas asynchronous phrasing cues had no effect. Furthermore, removal of synchronous cues produced deficits in performance on formerly cued trials, whereas removal of asynchronous cues had no effect. The results of Experiment 2 support the notion that in both experiments phrasing cues served as discriminative cues and indirectly suggest that rats are concurrently sensitive to pattern element cues, extra-sequence cues (such as phrasing cues), and to the relative timing of sequential events.     

Counsellor response to clients' metaphors: An evaluation and refinement of Strong's model

Experienced counsellors recorded clients' metaphors, their responses to the metaphors and their views on the effects of the interchange. Two of the three responses in Strong's model of counsellor response to clients' metaphors were used frequently. They were: explicating what is implicit in a metaphor and therapeutically extending or modifying it. The third response proposed by Strong'the counsellor creating and delivering a 'therapeutic metaphor''was used only once. A further kind of response was found: the counsellor recognizing and remembering a client's metaphor for possible future use. Overall, Strong's model was supported. The effect of counsellor orientation on counsellor response to clients' metaphors and the value and use of metaphors in counselling are briefly discussed, and some guidelines suggested.     

Looking again at the team dimension in systemic psychotherapy: is attending to group process a critical context for practice?

Team work and group supervision are essential features of the systemic model, yet there is surprisingly little literature on the impact of group process on both group supervision and team-based therapy. Beginning with two vignettes which evoke some aspects of group process and are based on the personal experiences of the authors, this paper will review the literature on working in teams from within a systemic perspective. ¹ Early models of teams and group processes within the literature will be criticized for their over-reliance on technique; more recent models for their over-reliance on collaboration. It will be argued that some systemic approaches to understanding teams can lead to group process issues becoming marginalized and covert, and therefore inevitably more difficult to address. However, viewing supervision groups as 'social constructions' is seen as a position offering more possibilities and, it will be argued, opens a pathway to embracing ideas from within psychoanalytic thinking on group process. Here ideas on group functioning, including the theories of, for example, Foulkes and Bion will be briefly reviewed and their implications for helping both supervisors and teams conceptualize group process discussed.     

The generality of belief in unsubstantiated claims

We tested the hypothesis that people show generality in their endorsement of unsubstantiated claims, employing more types of measures than used in previous studies. We found that measures of generic conspiracist ideation, specific fictitious conspiracy theory, and false conspiracy theory beliefs were all strongly and positively intercorrelated. A multiple regression analysis revealed that the measures of specific false and fictitious conspiracy theories both significantly predicted generic conspiracist ideation. A second broader test of the generality hypothesis showed that these measures of false and fictitious conspiracy belief were positively intercorrelated with measures of psychological misconceptions, pseudoscience, poorly supported psychological practices, and paranormal beliefs. However, the measures of misconceptions and pseudoscience displayed substantially lower correlations. The results provide support for the generality of acceptance of a wider variety of unsubstantiated claims than used in previous studies and also suggest differences in the types endorsed based on the kind of knowledge and content measured.     

A multiple species approach to sequential learning: Are you a man or a mouse?

We have developed a method for studying list learning in animals and humans, and we use variants of the task to examine list learning in rats, mice, and humans. This method holds several advantages over other methods. It has been found to be easily learned without lengthy pretraining. The data gathered with this procedure provide a measure of correct response rates, of incorrect responses and the locations of these responses, and of response latency on a trial-by-trialbasis. We have examined mouse, rat, and human list acquisition of patterns ranging from 12 to 48 items in length. This procedure has also been used to examine many aspects of list learning, such as the effects of the placement of phrasing cues that are either consistent or inconsistent with the structure of the list in rats and mice, the effects of phrasing cues of differing modalities in mice, the sensitivity of subjects to violations of list structure in rats, subjects’ abilities to “chunk” from nonadjacent serial positions in structured lists in rats, and subjects’ sensitivity to serial patterns with multiple levels of hierarchical organization. The procedure has also been used to examine the effects of drugs on sequential learning.