SEX DIFFERENCES IN VISUAL ENCODING SKILLS: READING SYMBOLS

Written language in all cultures is composed of symbols to which sounds have been attached somewhat arbitrarily. Meanings are also attached somewhat arbitrarily to letters and groups of letters. The transformation of symbols into sounds is generally seen to be part of the reading process, though it is not clear whether it is of equal importance at all stages of competence. It is possible that, at some stages, the skilled reader may have direct access to the meaning of a word or phrase from its visual representation. There is evidence from work of Coltheart, Hull and Slater (1975) that females tend to use phonological encoding to a greater extent than males when reading. Naish (1980) found that females encoded phonologically at a faster rate than males, and suggested that this might explain why the preferred mode of access to meaning appeared to be phonological for females but visual for males.     

Empirically Derived Ability-Achievement Subtypes in a Clinical Sample

The purpose of the present study was to identify reliable and clinically meaningful patterns of ability and achievement using the WISC-III and WIAT. Cluster analysis was used to group the 182 WISC-III and WIAT profiles (10 WISC-III subtests and 4 WIAT subtests) of children between the ages of 9 and 14 years. Theoretical and empirical considerations were used to identify a cluster solution, which involved comparison of several five-, six- and eight-cluster solutions. A five-cluster solution was selected as being representative of the data, which was well replicated across three hierarchical clustering methods (i.e., complete linkage, average linkage-within groups, and average linkage-between groups (UPGMA)). The clusters were labeled based on their most salient characteristics, which included a group of predominantly low ability and achievement, a group demonstrating a pattern of verbal processing deficits, a group demonstrating a pattern of visual spatial/processing speed deficits, a group with low ability and achievement with average processing speed, and a group with deficits consistent with an ACID pattern. The external validity of the five subtypes was assessed through an evaluation of the relationship between cluster membership and neuropsychological test data. Most predictions regarding neuropsychological performance were supported by the data, providing further evidence of the validity of the five-cluster solution. Clinical implications of the ability-achievement typology and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Erotic Education: Elaborating a Feminist and Faith‐Based Pedagogy for Experiential Learning in Religious Studies

This essay explores intersections among Jesuit, Quaker, and feminist theologies and pedagogies of social justice education in order to propose and elaborate an innovative theoretical and theological framework for experiential learning in religious studies that prioritizes relationality, called erotic education. This essay then applies the relational rationale of erotic education to interpret the author's design of a service or community‐based learning component in a course about contemporary U.S. Christian social justice movements, offered in both religiously‐affiliated and religiously‐inspired liberal arts colleges. The course case study not only chronicles the author's evolving pedagogical praxis as a feminist theologian teaching in Jesuit and Quaker institutions, but also is grounded in how the author's course embodies erotic education, that is, how specific objectives, learning practices, and assignments build and bolster relationships among students (in peer‐to‐peer small groups inside and outside the classroom) as well as among students and their community sites. In developing this framework and implementing it within this particular course, the author argues that erotic education emphasizes the naming and training of our existential desires for interpersonal relations in order to upbuild not only the individual but also the common good.     

The cognitive-somatic anxiety questionnaire: Psychometric and validity data

The Cognitive-Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ) is a 14-item self-report inventory that is divided into two 7-item scales (Cognitive and Somatic) that appear to reflect cognitive or somatic anxiety. In an attempt to evaluate the construct validity of this multidimensional instrument, the CSAQ was administered to 109 college students along with several other measures of physical and psychological symptoms. The results suggest that (a) despite considerable overlap between the Cognitive and the Somatic scales (r=.62), an exploratory factor analysis is able to identify a single large somatic factor along with three lesser cognitive-appearing factors, and (b) the correlations with concurrent measures of related constructs provide some limited evidence of the construct validity of the CSAQ. For males, both the Cognitive and the Somatic scales of the CSAQ correlated significantly with several anxietyrelated measures. However, for females CSAQ scores correlated less consistently with the other test scales, although Somatic scale scores for females were positively related to measures of health and exercise involvement. Suggestions for improving the CSAQ are offered.     

Prayer Coping,Disclosure of Trauma,and Mental Health Symptoms Among Recently Deployed United States Veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan Conflicts

U.S. military veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts are at risk for developing adverse mental health symptoms. This study was conducted to examine the associations between prayer coping, attitudes toward trauma disclosure, and mental health symptoms (posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] and depression) among 110 U.S. veterans who had returned from deployments in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom within the previous 6 months. Bivariate analyses revealed that prayer coping was positively correlated with an urge to talk about potentially traumatic experiences. When controlling for combat exposure, social support, and disclosure attitudes, multivariate regression analyses indicated that two of the prayer functions—praying for assistance and for calm and focus—were each uniquely linked with less PTSD and depressive symptomatology. In addition, a reliance on avoidant prayer was uniquely correlated with greater depressive symptomatology. These findings support emerging ideas about prayer as a form of trauma disclosure and highlight the relevance of this approach to coping for veterans as they readjust to civilian life.     

Deduction from Uncertain Premises

We investigate how the perceived uncertainty of a conditional affects a person's choice of conclusion. We use a novel procedure to introduce uncertainty by manipulating the conditional probability of the consequent given the antecedent. In Experiment 1, we show first that subjects reduce their choice of valid conclusions when a conditional is followed by an additional premise that makes the major premise uncertain. In this we replicate Byrne (1989). These subjects choose, instead, a qualified conclusion expressing uncertainty. If subjects are given a third statement that qualifies the likelihood of the additional premise, then the uncertainty of the conclusions they choose is systematically related to the suggested uncertainty. Experiment 2 confirms these observations in problems that omit the additional premise and qualify the first premise directly. Experiment 3 shows that the qualifying statement also affects the perceived probability of the consequent given the antecedent of the conditional. Experiment 4 investigates the effect of suggested uncertainty on the fallacies and shows that increases in uncertainty reduce the number of certain conclusions that are chosen while affirming the consequent but have no effect on denying the antecedent. We discuss our results in terms of rule theories and mental models and conclude that the latter give the most natural account of our results.     

The gist of the abnormal: Above-chance medical decision making in the blink of an eye

Very fast extraction of global structural and statistical regularities allows us to access the “gist”—the basic meaning—of real-world images in as little as 20 ms. Gist processing is central to efficient assessment and orienting in complex environments. This ability is probably based on our extensive experience with the regularities of the natural world. If that is so, would experts develop an ability to extract the gist from the artificial stimuli (e.g., medical images) with which they have extensive visual experience? Anecdotally, experts report some ability to categorize images as normal or abnormal before actually finding an abnormality. We tested the reality of this perception in two expert populations: radiologists and cytologists. Observers viewed brief (250- to 2,000-ms) presentations of medical images. The presence of abnormality was randomized across trials. The task was to rate the abnormality of an image on a 0–100 analog scale and then to attempt to localize that abnormality on a subsequent screen showing only the outline of the image. Both groups of experts had above-chance performance for detecting subtle abnormalities at all stimulus durations (cytologists d' ≈ 1.2 and radiologists d' ≈ 1), whereas the nonexpert control groups did not differ from chance (d' ≈ 0.23, d' ≈ 0.25). Furthermore, the experts’ ability to localize these abnormalities was at chance levels, suggesting that categorization was based on a global signal, and not on fortuitous attention to a localized target. It is possible that this global signal could be exploited to improve clinical performance.