Discussions on the large group

At the heart of this article are dialogues with three distinguished large group leaders: Patrick de Mare, Earl Hopper and Lionel Kreeger. They address, with Yvonne Agazarian, some of the major issues in leading large groups: terror and chaos, projective identification, annihilation anxiety, and the impact of size, structure, and boundary management on the potential for change and transformation in the large group. Also discussed are the twin heritage of both psychodynamic and sociological theory and the influence of psychoanalysis, basic assumption theory, information theory, general systems theory, and field theory on the current understanding of large group as the context for therapeutic change. The authors also introduce a theory of living human systems, which views the large group as one system in a hierarchy of isomorphic systems and identifies the subgroup as the fulcrum for change. From this systems-centered perspective, changing the structure and function of communication within subgroups simultaneously changes both the large group and the individual subgroup members.FAGPA is a consulting affiliate of Friends Hospital and maintains a private practice in Philadelphia. Dr. Agazarian has spent the last 30 years developing the theory of living human systems and systems-centered group and individual therapy.Frances B. Carter, M.S.S., is a consulting affiliate of Friends Hospital and maintains a private practice in Philadelphia.     

Unintended consequences of Ze Ren Zhi reforms in China: interplay of agricultural reform and population control policy

The aim of the discussion of unintended consequences of Ze Ren Zhi policy reforms in China is to show how isolating problems and developing solutions in isolation can lead to serious consequences. The Ze Ren Zhi reforms in 1978 were intended to increase agricultural productivity by changing from the collective system to an individual responsibility system, but the unintended and undesirable consequences were a growth in family size and discouragement of some environmentally sound land use practices. The prior system gave an equal share of collective income for an equal number of days worked. Under the new reform, "Baochan Daohu," each household had responsibility for a contracted quantity of grain production. Within 2-4 years, economic conditions improved considerably. A discussion is provided of the transition from rights and duties of the collectives to the new responsibility system and the experimentation with different systems. Specific attention is directed to land reforms, mutual aid teams, cooperatives, communes, variations of Ze Ren Zhi, contracting output to individual laborers, contracting jobs to households, and contracting output quotas to households. During the reforms, beginning in the 1950s and lasting until 1978, other changes were taking place. Death rates were declining and birth rates were increasing, such that in 1971 a campaign was established to promote the Late, Sparse, and Few policy for marrying and giving birth later, increasing birth intervals, and having fewer children. This voluntary program eventually took on a more universally mandatory nature. The 1950 Marriage Law stipulated 20 years as the legal age for marriage (18 years for females), and family planning (FP) workers during the 1970s were encouraging even later marriage, and by 1980 a system of rewards and penalties was established to reinforce small family size. After 1978 and a period of birth declines, the crude birth rate increased to 3.06 in 1983. The new responsibility system changed the reward and penalty system, led to a loss of FP workers, created conditions that gave advantages to large families, promoted early marriage and pregnancy, and created a migrant labor surplus. Chemical fertilizers were used and there was little incentive to get involved in reclamation or reforestation efforts that have longterm gain. Integrated planning and programming is needed for the short and long run.     

Bioethics at the National Institutes of Health

The National Institutes of Health is the largest biomedical research institution in the world. It has become one of the world's most highly respected research centers in part because of its efforts over the years to provide the research community with leadership in both the ethical and scientific parameters of research involving humans. As its 113th birthday approaches at the turn of the century, its great legacy is providing an environment to stimulate and nourish the diversity and creativity of ideas, and thereby enable science to progress. This research must continue to be guided and tempered by consistent and critical federally-supported ethical analyses.     

Female-female interactions and social stress in prairie voles

Trios of prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) composed of either two estrous sibling or nonsibling females and one male were monitored via time-lapse videotaping over 72 hr. Social and sexual behaviors were analyzed as a function of trio type (sibling or nonsibling) and fate (survivor or nonsurvivor) across 12-h time blocks. Within nonsibling trios, females that were able to maintain prolonged physical contact with the male within the first 3 days of trio formation later survived and successfully produced litters; females that did not maintain male contact later died of undetermined causes, presumably related to social stress. Frequencies of sexual behavior were similar in both trio types and both surviving and nonsurviving females received equivalent amounts of copulatory stimulation from the male. Sibling groups exhibited higher levels of female-female side-by-side contact; nonsibling groups exhibited greater amounts of female-initiated anogenital sniffing, and female-initiated aggression. Female-female social interactions may be determined by prior familiarity and/or relatedness and may play a dominant role in determining the social organization and mating system of this species.     

Occupational wage differentials among university educated technical personnel in a developing economy

Data taken in 1970–1971 from three university-trained occupational groups (2796 engineers, 1430 economists/business-administrators, and 162 basic scientists) in São Paulo's manufacturing industries are used in a path analysis to draw interoccupational comparisons concerning the antecedents of occupational wage differentials. The worker's total hourly wage is the dependent variable. A new variable, occupational influence level, is employed as immediately antecedent to wage, as in job experience (years in the present job). Years of advanced education, age, and seniority in the firm are treated as exogenous variables. Similarities and differences among occupations are discussed. As a whole the analysis illustrates a strategy of comparative occupational analysis.     

The use of psychological techniques in measuring and critically analyzing Navigators' flight performance

Under controlled flight conditions, the distance between a navigator's report of position and his actual position is a criterion of success in dead reckoning navigation. Students' logs were evaluated for five separate missions by comparing the students' entries with standards determined by experts. The reliability of this technique is indicated by the fact that mission to mission inter-correlations of error scores were low, while the intercorrelations between legs of the same mission were moderately high. The intercorrelations between the error scores for the different navigation variables were computed and analyzed by using both factor analysis and multiple regression techniques. Both analyses indicated that a major portion of all dead reckoning error could be attributed to errors made in determining magnetic deviation. As a result of these analyses, recommendations were made for changing the instruction in dead reckoning and alterations in the equipment used were suggested.This work was done as a part of the AAF Aviation Psychology Program. The authors are indebted to Thomas Paltier, Harley Smith, Wolcott, Lyon, and John King for assistance with the calculations.     

Circadian organization of locomotor activity in the Turkish hamster (Mesocricetus brandti)

The circadian organization of locomotor activity was examined in Turkish hamsters while exposed to a light-dark (LD) cycle, constant illumination (LL), and following blinding and gonadectomy. Under LD 16:8 the activity rhythm of all hamsters became well entrained with activity beginning approximately 30 min after dark onset. In contrast, when activity rhythms free-ran as the result of exposure to LL or blinding, a variety of spontaneous perturbations in the period and/or phase of the activity rhythm were observed.     

Phases of progressive burnout and their work site covariants: critical issues in OD research and praxis

The term "burnout" represents a significant perspective on how people respond to their work, but the attention paid to this phenomenon has largely been clinical and often anecdotal. In this article, the authors seek to expand the analysis of burnout in ways that permit comparative analysis, especially in large populations. This study specifically addresses three questions. First, does a paper-and-pencil instrument isolate domains of burnout that are relatively consistent between people-intensive work and the broader range of activities found in a commercial enterprise? Second, can we develop phases of progressive burnout? Third, can we test the efficacy of the burnout phases by searching for regularities in a panel of 22 variables commonly thought to tap the important facets of the work site? The author's analysis shows that we can answer these three central questions affirmatively, though occasionally with complex and potentially significant qualifications. The results of the analysis provide further evidence of the usefulness of a convenient instrument for measuring burnout and also suggest that behavioral scientists will find valuable a phase model that distinguishes regular and robust covariation by using a panel of variables thought to tap the important aspects of organizational life.     

Effects of teacher attention on attending behavior of two boys at adjacent desks

The effects of teacher attention on the attending behavior of two boys seated at adjacent desks were investigated. Baseline records were obtained of the appropriate attending behavior of two boys who were described as the most disruptive pupils in a second-grade classroom of a poverty area school. During the first experimental phase, the teacher systematically increased the amount of attention for appropriate attending in one of the pair, Edwin. This resulted in a dramatic increase in his attending rate and a lesser, though significant, increase in attending behavior of the second boy, Greg. During the second experimental phase, systematic attention for attending was instituted for Greg and was discontinued for Edwin. This resulted in further increases in attending by Greg and a reduction in attending by Edwin. A brief withdrawal of reinforcement for attending in both Greg and Edwin reduced attending levels for both. Following this reversal appropriate attending for both boys was systematically reinforced and attending returned to high levels.