Demand Transitions and Sustained Attention

A recent report by the National Research Council (Huey & Wickens, 1993) has identified transitions in task demand as an important dimension for study in vigilance research. This experiment tested the possibility that the effects of such transitions follow a relatively simple psychophysical rule—they are characterized by contrast effects. Transitions in task demand were achieved by shifting subjects from single-task to dual-task monitoring and vice versa. These transitions produced changes in subjects' sensing and decision-making functions that were far more intricate than simple contrast effects. The demand transition issue offers a complex research challenge on both basic and applied levels and warrants further investigation.     

Monocular and Binocular Vision in the Control of Goal-Directed Movement

In the present research the authors examined the time course of binocular integration in goal-directed aiming and grasping. With liquid-crystal goggles, the authors manipulated vision independently to the right and left eyes of 10 students during movement preparation and movement execution. Contrary to earlier findings reported in catching experiments (I. Olivier, D. J. Weeks, K. L. Ricker, J. Lyons, & D. Elliott, 1998), neither a temporal nor a spatial binocular advantage was obtained in 1 grasping and 2 aiming studies. That result suggests that, at least in some circumstances, monocular vision is sufficient for the precise control of limb movements. In a final aiming experiment involving 3-dimen- sional spatial variability and no trial-to-trial visual feedback about performance, binocular vision was associated with greater spatial accuracy. Binocular superiority appeared to be most pronounced when participants were unable to adjust their limb control strategy or procedure on the basis of terminal feedback about performance.     

Fitts’ Theorem in Oculomotor Control: Dissociable Movement Times for Amplitude and Width Manipulations

The authors examined whether movement times (MT) for discrete saccades are constant given equivalent index of difficulty (ID) values (i.e., unitary nature of Fitts’ theorem). To that end, we contrasted ID/MT relations for saccades equated for ID but differing with respect to their target amplitudes and widths. Results showed that MT increased with increasing ID within amplitude and width conditions; however, the ID/MT slope was markedly steeper in the former condition. Thus, the amplitude condition imposed greater information processing demands than the width condition—a result indicating that the constituent elements of Fitts’ theorem are dissociable (i.e., nonunitary). Further, examination of saccade kinematics demonstrated that the optimal MT for a given target amplitude was largely independent of target width.     

A Muscle Awareness Model for Changes in Rorschach Human Movement Responses

The present series of studies sought to provide evidence that M would increase under any conditions which make an S more aware of his muscles. The studies demonstrated that at least in women, M increased over a variety of conditions involving heightened muscle awareness. Specifically M increased in conditions utilizing muscle activation, deactivation, hypnosis, and focusing thoughts on the body musculature. The muscle awareness model unlike the sensory-tonic model accounts for increases in M following hyperactivity as well as inhibition.     

Associations Between Symptom Validity Test Failure and Scores on the MMPI–2–RF Validity and Substantive Scales

Existing measures of approval motivation attempt to assess this dimension of personality indirectly through evaluation of socially desirable response tendencies. The Martin-Larsen Approval Motivation (MLAM) Scale takes a more direct approach by focusing on individual differences in need for social approval. Since the original version of the MLAM scale is subject to acquiescence response bias, fully balanced and partially balanced scales were created to minimize this response style. Results indicated that the revised measures arc equivalent to the original version and that balancing affects the magnitude but not the pattern of correlates with other scales. Comparisons with the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability (MCSD) Scale revealed a divergent pattern of correlates with several measures of personality suggesting a basic difference between the MLAM and MCSD in their conceptualization of approval motivation.     

Assessing Measurement and Predictive Invariance of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale–20 in U.S. Anglo and U.S. Hispanic Student Samples

We collected data from a predominately Anglo American student sample in the Southeastern United States and a predominately Hispanic student sample in the Southwestern United States. Along with an assessment of internal consistency reliability, we examined measurement invariance of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale–20 (TAS–20) using confirmatory factor analysis. We also assessed the predictive invariance of the TAS–20. Results indicate that 2 of the 3 TAS–20 subscales demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency reliability across samples. Items from the TAS–20 subscales demonstrated measurement invariance of the latent means. The relationship between 2 measures of emotional dysfunction and the TAS–20 also demonstrated slope and intercept invariance, indicating equivalent validity.     

The MMPI–2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales and Redundancy: Response to Tellegen,Ben-Porath,and Sellbom

In this article, we examine 5 criticisms of Tellegen, Ben-Porath, and Sellbom (2009/this issue) about our study demonstrating the redundant relationships of the Restructured Clinical (RC) scales with extant MMPI–2 scales. We discuss differences in univariate versus multivariate comparisons of the RC scales and our “proxy” scales using their data. We show that (a) both the RC and extant proxy scales identified in our analyses account for most of the variance in the Clinical scales; (b) the proxy scales are redundant with the RC scales; (c) the proxy scales matched the 6 RC scales in accounting for variance in the Clinical scales exactly in three cases, differed by ≤.02 in 2 cases, and reached a maximum of .11 in one case; (d) the item overlap between RC1 and HEA is not at issue but rather their correlation with Scale 1; and (e) the evidence for the construct validity of the RC scales is weak using findings on the incremental validity of RC4 as illustrative.     

Relationships Between Leader-Contingent and Non-contingent Reward and Punishment Behaviors and Subordinates’ Perceptions of Justice and Satisfaction, and Evaluation of the Moderating Influence of Trust Propensity, Pay Level, and Role Ambiguity

Purpose

This research evaluates how reward and punishment behaviors are related to employee satisfaction, and how perceptions of justice mediate the effects of these behaviors. This study also seeks to examine the connection between some boundary conditions and the efficacy of reward and punishment behaviors.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Data were collected using questionnaires, and hypotheses were tested using a sample of 3,065 managers from 41 business units.

Findings

We found that contingent financial and social rewards were positively related to fairness and satisfaction, whereas punishment behaviors exert a negative influence. Findings reveal that high-trust propensity and low-pay level strengthen the positive influence of rewards on distributive justice, whereas high role ambiguity increases the positive effect of reward behaviors and the negative influence of non-contingent punishment (NCP) on superior satisfaction.

Implications

This study provided evidence that using contingent rewards is more effective in promoting positive attitudes at work than using contingent punishments. Our findings add to the evidence that organizations would benefit from encouraging their managers to use financial and social rewards and reducing the administration of NCP among performing employees.

Originality/Value

This study represents a first attempt to examine an integrated model of the effects of reward and punishment behaviors. It also contributes to this field by empirically evaluating the impact of individual and situational boundary conditions in the efficacy of these leader behaviors.     

Children's Eyewitness Identification as Implicit Moral Decision‐Making

Why are young children particularly prone to make false positive errors or false alarms when identifying a wrongdoer? In three studies, the problem was approached using a signal detection analysis, focusing on the moral costs of false alarms, as understood at different points in development. The findings are as follows: (i) decisional criteria became more conservative, indicating fewer false alarms, with age in three studies; (ii) children's beliefs about the seriousness of false alarms and misses changed from (a) a non‐moral concern to (b) a moral concern for misses to (c) a moral concern for false alarms. (iii) These findings were replicated in two demographically different communities. More critically, (iv) framing of the filmed event, for example, as a moral transgression (stealing) or a pro‐social (helping) act (Study 1) and as intentional with little damage or unintentional with major damage (Study 3), interacts with age in influencing decisional criteria. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.