The effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval processes: The resiliency of retrieval processes

We have recently cast doubt (Craik, Govoni, Naveh-Benjamin, & Anderson, 1996; Naveh-Benjamin, Craik, Guez, & Dori, 1998) on the view that encoding and retrieval processes in human memory are similar. Divided attention at encoding was shown to reduce memory performance significantly, whereas divided attention at retrieval affected memory performance only minimally. In this article we examined this asymmetry further by using more difficult retrieval tasks, which require substantial effort. In one experiment, subjects had to encode and retrieve lists of unfamiliar name-nouns combinations attached to people's photographs, and in the other, subjects had to encode words that were either strong or weak associates of the cues presented with them and then to retrieve those words with either intra- or extra-list cues. The results of both experiments showed that unlike division of attention at encoding, which reduces memory performance markedly, division of attention at retrieval has almost no effect on memory performance, but was accompanied by an increase in secondary-task cost. Such findings again illustrated the resiliency of retrieval processes to manipulations involving the withdrawal of attention. We contend that retrieval processes are obligatory or protected, but that they require attentional resources for their execution.     

Extinction of conditioned taste aversions: Effects of concentration and overshadowing

Extinction of conditioned taste aversions was examined as a function of taste concentration and of the presence of an additional taste. The results of Experiment 1 were consistent with previous evidence in that a conditioned aversion to high concentration saline was more persistent in extinction than an aversion to a low concentration. However, when floor effects were avoided the rate of extinction was faster for the higher (1%) concentration than for 0.2% saline (Experiment 2), a result consistent with accounts of extinction in other preparations. Three further experiments examined extinction of a conditioned sucrose aversion. The addition of 1% saline, but not of 0.2% saline, to sucrose during extinction produced overshadowing ("protection from extinction"; Experiment 3). Such overshadowing by saline was detected after two, but not after a single extinction trial (Experiment 4). This last finding suggests that under the conditions of the present experiments sweet and salty tastes function as elemental stimuli competing for loss of associative strength. No overshadowing was found when almond (an aqueous odour) was used in place of saline as the added stimulus, even when high concentrations of almond were used that produced observable neophobia (Experiments 5A and 5B).     

Engagement With Novel Virtual Environments: The Role of Perceived Novelty and Flow in the Development of the Deficient Self‐Regulation of Internet Use and Media Habits

This article extends theory on the deficient self‐regulation (DSR) of Internet use and media habits by integrating predictors relevant to technology use. It introduces novelty perceptions of a technology and flow as conditions that increase the likelihood of experiencing DSR and media habits. An experiment, with between‐ and within‐subjects components, was undertaken to test whether the relationships of DSR hypothesized at various stages of technology use are substantiated. Results demonstrated that the perceived novelty of a technology initiated flow, which in turn predicted growth of DSR during initial engagement with virtual environments. Growth of DSR in familiar stages of technology use corresponded to the formation of media habits over time.