THERMODYNAMICS AND LIFE

Abstract. The basic features of thermodynamics as the "science of the possible" are outlined with a special emphasis on the role of the concept of entropy as a measure of irreversibility in natural processes and its relation to "order," precisely defined. Natural processes may lead to an increase in complexity, and this concept has a subtle relationship to those of order, organization, and information. These concepts are analyzed with respect to their relation to biological evolution, together with other ways of attempting to quantify it. Thermodynamic interpretations of evolution are described and critically compared, and the significance of dissipative structures, of "order through fluctuations," is emphasized in relation both to the evolutionary succession of temporarily stable forms and to kinetic mechanisms producing new patterns.     

Factor analysis by generalized least squares

Aitken's generalized least squares (GLS) principle, with the inverse of the observed variance-covariance matrix as a weight matrix, is applied to estimate the factor analysis model in the exploratory (unrestricted) case. It is shown that the GLS estimates are seale free and asymptotically efficient. The estimates are computed by a rapidly converging Newton-Raphson procedure. A new technique is used to deal with Heywood cases effectively.The work on this project was done when the first author was Research Statistician at Educational Testing Service, Princeton, N. J. The second author was in part supported by a grant from the Research Committee of the University of Wisconsin Graduate School. The authors wish to thank Michael Browne for many helpful comments and Marielle van Thillo for valuable assistance in the numerical computations.     

Limits on the applicability of signal detection theories

Two auditory signals were presented in random sequences in which the more intense signal came on.2, .5, or.8a/the trials. Each trial began with an intermediate tone which was identified in the instructions as either the standard for comparison or simply as a warning tone. Half the Os were instructed to discriminate whether the signal was “louder” or “softer” than the standard, the other half to recognize which signal had been presented. For both discrimination and recognition tasks, the total proportion of ldlouder” judgments was independent of the presentation probabilities, accuracy for each signal varying inversely with its probability of presentation. These results suggest strict limitations on the response optimization posited by theories of signal detection.     

Similarity of cardiac CR forms in the rhesus monkey during several experimental procedures

Cardiac rates of rhesus monkeys were observed in a variety of different conditioning procedures, each of which involved a visual stimulus (CS) followed by an electric shock (US). With a 30-sec CS, cardiac rate accelerated rapidly after CS onset, reached a maximum in the middle of CS, and decelerated thereafter, with a terminal CS rate often at the level of, or below, pre-CS levels. A similar biphasic cardiac rate response in CS was also observed under subsequent exposure to intermittent pairings of CS and US, avoidance of US, response-produced termination of US, and when CS-US pairings were superimposed upon an avoidance baseline, even when CS duration was varied from 12 to 60 seconds. The unusual regularity of cardiac rate responses in several different procedures may result from one or more of these factors: (a) characteristics of the rhesus monkey, (b) initial exposure to Pavlovian conditioning, or (c) the uniformity of measurement of cardiac rate employed in this study.     

Peer Relationships and Male Academic Achievement: A Review and Suggested Clarification

Earlier reviews of the research have reached conflicting conclusions about the relationship between social behavior and academic achievement. A brief but comprehensive review is presented. It is suggested that there is greater consistency in this research area than has previously been noted. When the research is categorized according to sample age level, it is found among younger subjects that high achievers tend to be more socially active than low achievers, while among college-age students, low achievers tend to be the more socially active. Questions are raised which future research might investigate.     

Verbal interference in a perceptual comparison task

When Ss had to indicate if the colors of pairs of items from the Stroop test were the same or different, the usual interference effect was completely eliminated. However, when the verbal information consisted of SAME and DIFF rather than color names, interference was reestablished. This indicates that the perceptual comparison task does not eliminate interference simply by rendering Ss insensitive to the meanings of words.     

Finger localization and finger praxis

The relations between finger localization and various types of finger praxis were assessed by estimates of the inter-correlations among the performance of 100 six-year-old children. Finger localization was related significantly to those types of finger praxis which involve movements of the individual fingers with respect to each other. Right-left discrimination was related to finger localization, but not to the measures of finger praxis.

The findings are interpreted in terms of the construct of the finger schema, which can be viewed as a determinant of performance in both the localization and praxis tasks. This construct can also serve as an explanation of the observed concurrence of finger agnosia and finger apraxia as a consequence of cerebral disease.     

Cognitive behavior modification: ‘Motivated learning’ reading treatment with subprofessional therapy-technicians

A method of treating reading deficits based upon an extrinsic motivational system previously employed successfully with a single subject was extended to eighteen additional subjects. The junior-high age subjects included retarded children in special classes, several emotionally disturbed children, and culturally deprived children. The method of training used in the original study was designed to be simple to administer and simple to record the performance of the child. Thus, it was hypothesized that subprofessional personnel could be employed to administer the treatment. Adult volunteers and high school seniors were used as the therapy-technicians.

The eighteen Ss were given 38.2 hr of training in daily half-hour sessions, during which period the average reinforcement earned was $22.29. The mean number of single word reading responses was 94,425. The rate of reading accelerated over the period of training even though the reading material became more difficult. This occurred during a period when progressively less (about one-fourth as much) reinforcement was given per reading response. A mean of 593.5 new words were learned and 70.9 per cent of these were retained in a long-term test. The attention, attendance, cooperation, and diligent work behavior of the various children were maintained in good strength throughout the duration of the study. The results suggest that research be conducted to develop methods for treatment of behavioral deficits that can be widely applied by subprofessional therapy-technicians supervised by clinical psychologists.     

SCIENCE AND GOD THE CREATOR

Abstract. Variable judgments, both negative and positive, have been made by scientists (mainly physicists and astronomers) on the theological implications of their Findings. It is urged that science and theology are most appropriately related through a critical realist approach. On this basis some implications for our conceptions of God and our scientific perspectives on the created world are explored with respect to both divine Being and divine Becoming. A positive assessment of nature as created concludes the article.