Discrimination Against Competent Women1

Although women have complained about job discrimination, the experimental literature has revealed little discrimination against competent women. On the thesis that discrimination would only occur when a competent woman was in interaction with a man, a 2 × 3 × 2 × 2 experiment factorially varied sex of subject, type of interaction (competition, cooperation, observation), sex of others, and competency of others. As predicted, males like the competent woman only when they observed her performance and were not involved in the interaction. Furthermore, both males and females were more likely to exclude a competent women from their group than a competent man, and to include an incompetent woman than an incompetent man. Although competent women were not discriminated against on a leadership measure, it was clear that an atmosphere conducive to low performance by women was established. These findings were interpreted in terms of the disconfirmation of stereotypic beliefs regarding the relative competencies of men and women, and ethnocentrism.     

Returning a favor and retaliating harm: The effects of stated intentions and actual behavior

Two studies were carried out to determine the joint effects of an-other's stated intentions toward helping a person, and the amount of help the other actually gives a person, on the reciprocation of help. In Study I (n = 120) another person stated she intended to either help, not help, or did not state her intent; this person actually helped the subject a great deal or very little. The data showed subjects reciprocated solely on amount of actual help received (p < .001); however, questionnaire data revealed that when the past helper stated her intentions, regardless of whether the intent was to help or not to help, subjects showed less involvement with the situation. It was hypothesized that knowledge of the past helper's intent threatened the subject's freedom of choice with regard to reciprocation, which led subjects to ignore the intent in order to restore their freedom. Study II (n = 60) was a replication of Study I with the exception that the helper's intent, while stated, was discovered by subjects in such a way that they believed the helper unaware of the subject's knowledge. Both the other person's intent (p < .10) and her actual helping behavior (p < .001) were related to reciprocation. The results were interpreted in terms of Brehm's reactance theory, although other potential explanations were also explored.     

Mental strategies,mental capacity,and instruction: A neo-Piagetian investigation

Pascual-Leone's neo-Piagetian theory of development was used to predict the pre- and postinstruction distributions of scores on a subject-controlled digit placement task as a function of three parameters: (1) the mental strategy which subjects attempted to apply, (2) the demand which attempting to apply this strategy placed on their mental capacity, and (3) the maximum mental capacity which they were capable of mobilizing. The predicted and obtained distributions corresponded quite closely for each kind of strategy at each age level sampled (6, 8, and 10). The discussion focused on the methodological and analytic requirements which must be met if the same approach is to be applied to making successful predictions in more naturalistic paradigms.     

Perceptions of self-disclosers: Effects of sex and physical attractiveness1

Five experiments were conducted to study perceptions of self-disclosure by attractive and unattractive males and females. Results showed that highly disclosing females were preferred over females with medium or low self-disclosure when their self-disclosure was about a parental suicide or about sexual attitudes. Highly disclosing females were evaluated less favorably than females with medium self-disclosure when their self-disclosure was about aggressive feelings of competitiveness. Highly disclosing males were evaluated less favorably than males with medium and low self-disclosure on all disclosure topics. Disclosers with high physical attractiveness were evaluated more favorably than disclosers with low physical attractiveness, but there was considerable variation among subject populations.     

The Role of Personal Spirituality and Religious Social Activity on the Life Satisfaction of Older Widowed Women

We examined the impact of personal spiritualityand religious social activity on the life satisfactionof older widowed women. Fifty-one White, femaleretirement community residents completed measures of personal spirituality, religious socialactivities, and life satisfaction. Ten residents werealso interviewed about their religious beliefs andactivities. Although the interviews revealed bothpersonal spirituality and religious social activity tobe central to the life satisfaction of these women,quantitative results suggested only involvement withreligious social activities was related to lifesatisfaction. Interviews revealed thatchurch activitiesprovided the women a loving family and a supportivecommunity. Religious activities helped these older womenovercome hardships, gave them a chance to sustainfriendships, and provided a vehicle through which they couldcontribute to their community.     

Black Women and White Women in Groups: Suggestions for Minority-Sensitive Group Services on University Campuses

Similarities and differences between group dynamics of one all-Black-woman's support group and one all-White-woman's support group are presented and discussed in terms of future implications for university counseling center program development.     

Sulcus topography of the parietal opercular region: an anatomic and MR study

The study describes the sulcal and gyral topography, variability, and left-right asymmetry of the parietal operculum. Eighty postmortem hemispheres as well as sagittal magnetic resonance images from 20 health volunteers (40 hemispheres) were evaluated. Four different types of parietal opercular sulcus topography were recognized. Most frequently, and conforming with the anatomic "textbook pattern", the inferior postcentral sulcus (POCS) is the sulcus anterior to the posterior ascending ramus (PAR) of the Sylvian fissure (type 1). Variations were the following: lack of a PAR (type 2), interposition of an intermediate opercular sulcus and gyrus between PAR and POCS (type 3), and direct transition of PAR into POCS with subsequent lack of a classical supramarginal gyrus (type 4). Inconstancy of the sulcal standard arrangement was especially pronounced among left hemispheres, where the patterns differed from type 1 in one third of the cases. Types 2 and 3 were significantly more frequent in left hemispheres, whereas type 4 occurred significantly more frequently in right hemispheres. Upon intraindividual left-right comparison, a remarkable 38% of the brains showed gross asymmetry of the parietal opercular sulcus patterns, characterized by a left type 2 or 3 and/or a right type 4; another 5% exhibited a reverse type of asymmetry. The findings supplement previous data on gross variability and left-right asymmetry of the posterior Sylvian fissure and its lower bank. They indicate that the Sylvian fissure is an unreliable landmark with respect to inferior parietal structures especially in left hemispheres. Individual mapping of perisylvian topography may contribute to studies on structural-functional relationship.     

The effects of perceived phenotypic racial stereotypicality and social identity threat on racial minorities’ attitudes about police

This study examines the role of perceived phenotypic racial stereotypicality and race-based social identity threat on racial minorities’ trust and cooperation with police. We hypothesize that in police interactions, racial minorities’ phenotypic racial stereotypicality may increase race-based social identity threat, which will lead to distrust and decreased participation with police. Racial minorities (Blacks, Latinos, Native Americans, and multi-racials) and Whites from a representative random sample of city residents were surveyed about policing attitudes. A serial multiple mediation model confirmed that racial minorities’ self-rated phenotypic racial stereotypicality indirectly affected future cooperation through social identity threat and trust. Due to the lack of negative group stereotypes in policing, the model did not hold for Whites. This study provides evidence that phenotypic stereotypicality influences racial minorities’ psychological experiences interacting with police.