Detection and validation of unscalable item score patterns using item response theory: an illustration with Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Children

We illustrate the usefulness of person-fit methodology for personality assessment. For this purpose, we use person-fit methods from item response theory. First, we give a nontechnical introduction to existing person-fit statistics. Second, we analyze data from Harter's (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985) in a sample of children ranging from 8 to 12 years of age (N = 611) and argue that for some children, the scale scores should be interpreted with care and caution. Combined information from person-fit indexes and from observation, interviews, and self-concept theory showed that similar score profiles may have a different interpretation. For some children in the sample, item scores did not adequately reflect their trait level. Based on teacher interviews, this was found to be due most likely to a less developed self-concept and/or problems understanding the meaning of the questions. We recommend investigating the scalability of score patterns when using self-report inventories to help the researcher interpret respondents' behavior correctly.     

Regulating cognitive control through approach-avoidance motor actions

In two studies, the regulatory function of approach-avoidance cues in activating cognitive control processes was investigated. It was hypothesized that avoidance motor actions, relative to approach motor actions, increase the recruitment of cognitive resources, resulting in better performance on tasks that draw on these capacities. In Study 1, error rates on a verbal response mode version of the Stroop task were analyzed. On inconsistent Stroop trials, participants in the avoidance condition made significantly fewer errors than those in the approach condition. In Study 2, performance differences on a task switching paradigm were investigated. Crucially, approach and avoidance motor actions were manipulated within-subjects by alternating between approach and avoidance motor actions on 4 blocks of trials. Temporal switching costs were significantly lower while performing an avoidance, compared to an approach motor action. These results support our hypothesis that avoidance cues, relative to approach cues, lead to improved performance on cognitive control tasks.     

When approach motivation and behavioral inhibition collide: Behavior regulation through stimulus devaluation

In the present article a theory is outlined that explains why and when behavioral inhibition alters stimulus evaluations. In addition, some initial evidence is presented that supports the theory. Specifically, results of three experiments show that refraining from responding to stimuli results in devaluation of these stimuli, but only when these stimuli are positive. These findings suggest automatic behavior-regulation, in terms of devaluation of positive stimuli, in situations in which environmental cues triggering approach (because of the positive valence of the stimulus) run counter to situational demands (cues that elicit behavioral inhibition). Relations of the present research to self-perception, cognitive dissonance, and psychological reactance are discussed.     

A Pragma-dialectical Procedure for a Critical Discussion

According to the pragma-dialectical ideal of reasonableness, in case of a difference of opinion the protagonist and the antagonist of a standpoint should attempt to find out by means of a critical discussion whether the protagonist's standpoint is capable of withstanding the antagonist's criticism. In this paper, the authors formulate the latest version of their basic rules for the performance of speech acts in the various stages that can beanalytically distinguished in a critical discussion that can lead to the resolution of a single and non-mixed difference opinion.     

Predicting career information-seeking behavior of school pupils using the theory of planned behavior

The variation in the extent to which adolescents engage in career exploratory behavior is large. This study examined the utility of the Theory of Planned Behavior, augmented by the addition of a past behavior variable, in predicting information-seeking behavior in a school pupil sample. A sample of 278 adolescents completed a questionnaire administered six weeks into the first term and again six weeks later. A structural equation modeling analysis, using LISREL 8.3, suggested that the enhanced TPB adequately accounted for the data (RMSEA=0.047). The results indicated that behavioral intentions to search for career information were influenced primarily by past behavior and to a lesser extent by attitudes towards career exploratory behavior. Future behavior was explained best by past behavior. Social norms and perceived behavioral control exerted no significant influence on behavioral intentions or self-reported career exploratory behavior.     

The Influence of Gender and Social Role on the Interpretation of Facial Expressions

The current studies were designed to examine the influence of apparent gender on the interpretation of ambiguous emotional expressions. Participants rated the intensity of emotions that were expressed in two versions of the same emotional expression, in which hair style and clothing were altered to manipulate gender. The emotional expression in each of the photos was a combination of anger and sadness. Of interest was the effect of the apparent gender of the poser on the interpretation of the blended emotional expression. In Study 2 we also examined whether the social role (i.e., occupation) of the poser influenced the interpretation. Although the occupation of the poser did not influence emotion ratings, the apparent gender of the poser influenced the interpretation of ambiguous emotional expressions in a stereotype-consistent manner in both Studies 1 and 2.     

Learning and Unlearning the Myths We Are Taught: Gender and Social Dominance Orientation

Within social dominance theory (SDT) the invariance hypothesis predicts that men will be higher in social dominance orientation (SDO) even after accounting for cultural or social factors. We tested this hypothesis by measuring the relationship between sex and SDO while controlling for the effects of gender socialization. Our first two studies demonstrated that the sex difference in SDO is mediated by gender socialization and that masculinity and femininity are differentially related to two different forms of SDO. Study 3 extended these results by showing that SDO decreases as a function of feminist identity acquisition. These results suggest that the status hierarchy based on gender has properties of arbitrary classifications such as race, and they call into question the classification of gender as invariant within SDT.     

Clergy Response to Domestic Violence: A Preliminary Survey of Clergy Members,Victims, and Batterers

Although the presence of both religious organizations and violence in American communities is pervasive, scant attention has focused on how to best enroll clergy and religiously oriented resources in the battle against family violence. Given that it is not uncommon for women or couples to seek counseling or advice from clergy before accessing community-based resources, the frequency, nature, and utility of these contacts were assessed in this exploratory study from the perspectives of 47 female victims and 70 male perpetrators of domestic violence. Forty-one clergy members from various denominations were also surveyed about their contacts with those seeking help for domestic violence. Results indicated that 43% of the victims and 20% of the perpetrators did seek help from clergy. Almost all of the victims who contacted clergy reported satisfaction with the counsel they received. All clergy respondents reported counseling people who had experienced domestic violence during their career, and 80% had violence-related contacts in the past year. The service-related implications of these clergy contacts from victim, perpetrator, and clergy perspectives are discussed.