The development of intergroup bias in childhood: how social norms can shape children's racial behaviours

The present research examined the developmental course of racial behaviours in childhood. It tested the hypothesis that White children's expressions of racial prejudice do not necessarily decline in middle childhood due to the development of particular cognitive skills but that instead, as argued by the socio-normative approach, children older than seven will go on expressing prejudiced attitudes under appropriate conditions. This would be explained by the presence of an anti-racism norm, along with the existence of values promoting equal rights, which impede blatant expressions of racism. In the first study 283 White children aged 6-7 and 9-10 years performed a task of resource allocation to White and Black target children in conditions of high (White interviewer was present) or low (White interviewer was absent) salience of the anti-racist norm. The 6- to 7-year-old children discriminated against the Black target in both conditions whereas older children discriminated against the Black child only when the anti-racist norm was not salient. In Study 2, 187 White children aged 6-7 and 9-10 years performed the same resource allocation task in conditions of explicit activation of similarity vs dissimilarity or egalitarian vs merit-based norms regarding race relations. Supporting the hypothesis of the role of racist or anti-racist norms on the expression of intergroup discrimination, results have again shown that 6- to 7-year-old children discriminated against the Black target in both conditions while older children presented significantly different prejudiced/nonprejudiced behaviours consistent with the activated norms. These results were discussed in terms of the need for a reanalysis of the assumptions and research results of the cognitive-developmental theory and of further developments in the socio-normative approach regarding the development of prejudice in childhood.     

Social problem-solving in depressed,conduct-disordered,and normal adolescents

Although past theory and research implicate social problem-solving deficits in both depression and aggressive disorders, research examining carefully diagnosed groups of adolescent depressed and conduct-disordered groups had not previously been conducted. In the current study three groups of adolescents (major depression, conduct-disordered, and normal) were studied using two social problem-solving measures. Both the Means-Ends Problem-Solving task (MEPS) and the Social Situations Analysis measure (SSA) failed to show social problem-solving problem deficits in the depressed group relative to their normal age peers, but did provide corroborative evidence for social problem-solving deficits in the conduct-disordered sample. Relative to the other two groups, the conduct-disordered adolescents were found to generate fewer means to a social end, to anticipate fewer obstacles in the pursuit of solutions to interpersonal situations, and to generate fewer assertive behavioral solutions to difficult social situations. The results are discussed in relation to other work with depressed and aggressive youth, and directions for future research are given.     

AN ALTERNATING TREATMENT COMPARISON OF ORAL AND TOTAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING PROGRAMS WITH ECHOLALIC AUTISTIC CHILDREN

An alternating treatment comparison was conducted of the relative effectiveness of oral and total communication training models for teaching expressive labeling skills to three echolalic autistic children. The results of this comparison demonstrated that total communication proved to be the most successful approach with each of the subjects. In addition, the replication of these findings both within and across subjects suggest that total communication may be, in general, the most effective of these two training models for teaching basic vocal language skills to echolalic children. A number of hypotheses are presented that may provide a basis for the demonstrated effect.     

Perceptual differences in gender ideals among heterosexual and homosexual males and females

The relationship between sexual oreintation (heterosexuality vs. homosexuality) and perceptions of self, ideal male, and ideal female was investigated. Using the Androgyny scale of the Bex Sex Role Inventory [S. L. Bem, “The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 42(2), 155–162] data were analyzed for 144 male and female subjects. The results indicated that homosexual, compared to heterosexual, subjects were least likely to stereotype their three perceptions, yet showed a significant difference between their perceived self and their same-sex ideals. Moreover, homosexual females were the only group to show a significant difference between their perceptions of the ideal male and ideal female, and to categorize all their perceptions within an androgynous range. Furthermore, they were least likely to utilize traditional sex roles in organizing their perceptions. Finally, the homosexual males, although not as extreme as heterosexual males, still maintain a slight tendency to stereotype their perception of an ideal male.     

Size,convexity, and curvature magnitude estimations of curvilinear forms

Groups of Os made magnitude estimates of size, convexity, and curvature of patterns along a shape continuum. College Os repeated the procedure for a given physical measure in three successive sessions, but high school Os made only one set of estimates. The apparent size for the patterns was found to grow with an exponent between .700 and .755 for high school and college Os. The magnitude estimates for convexity and curvature were less reliable than the size estimates both between college and high school Os and within college Os over successive sessions. The magnitude estimates from the high school and college Os showed a faster apparent growth of curvature than of convexity.     

An analysis of anxiety and depression scales

The relationship between the constructs of anxiety and depression are examined through the administration of nine self-report scales to male and female undergraduates. The results showed strong correlations among all measures, and factor analyses revealed one major "psychological distress" factor for each sex. No sex differences were found on the measure employed. The discussion focused on the implications of the findings for research in the areas of anxiety and depression, and further research that is required.     

The effects of signalled and unsignalled lick-dependent delays on the development of schedule-induced drinking in rats

Food pellets were programmed to be delivered to rats every 60 sec (Fixed Time 60-sec schedule), and the development of schedule-induced drinking was measured in terms of the amount of water consumed and the number of licks per inter-pellet interval. For some rats (masters) 10-sec delays in food delivery were dependent on licks. Yoked-control rats received food at the same time as their masters and independently of their own behaviour. In Experiment 1, in which the delays were signalled by a blackout, the master rats began to drink, but this schedule-induced behaviour then decreased to levels lower than those shown by the yoked controls. When the signalled delays were discontinued, the drinking of the master rats recovered. In Experiment 2, in which the delays were not signalled, the master rats did not develop as much schedule-induced drinking as the yoked controls, and discontinuing the delays led to only small increases in drinking. These results support the view that schedule-induced drinking is subject to control by its consequences.     

Automated theorem proving for non-classical logics

Automated theorem proving for non-classical logics     

A technique for making realistic three-dimensional images of objects

Two 151.8-cm-diam semicircular parabolic mirrors of optical quality are the essential components of an apparatus that creates highly realistic three-dimensional images of objects. The apparatus is being used to explore the relationship between vision and touch in infancy by creating a discrepancy between what is seen (a tangible-looking object) and what is felt. Previous attempts to study intersensory coordination in this manner have failed due to lack of realistic images. Other uses for the apparatus include the creation of illusory surfaces to study the development of expectations about the tangible surface properties of visible objects.