Gender-Linked Differences in Everyday Memory Performance: Effort Makes the Difference

Previous research has found gender differences in everyday memory tasks such as remembering shopping lists or directions, and these findings can be attributed to increased motivation or memory skill resulting from the association of different tasks with masculine or feminine gender roles. To investigate the motivational explanation, the recall of an ambiguous shopping list, labeled as grocery or hardware, was examined under instructions that stated that either women or men are good at the task, or instructions that were neutral. The findings were not consistent with the skill explanation. There was a significant interaction between list label, participant gender, and instructions, which can be explained in terms of the increased or decreased motivation that might arise from particular combinations of label and instruction.     

Consequences of customer powerlessness: Secondary control

• This research investigated the consequences of powerlessness when consumers experience service failure with a company that has high‐exit barriers. The specific consequences investigated were three types of secondary control, which are grudge‐holding, avoidance (predictive avoidance), and retaliation desire. These secondary control coping strategies highlight consumers' ability to control their personal behaviors and thoughts, even when they cannot completely control the outcomes of a situation. A qualitative study, followed by a scenario‐based survey and structural equation model, suggest that the primary direct consequences of powerlessness in commercial relationships are grudge‐holding and predictive avoidance, and that both predictive avoidance and a desire to retaliate are further consequences of grudge‐holding. The results of this research underscore the importance of understanding the role of powerlessness and its consequences in consumer–firm relationships.

Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Phonological and visual distinctiveness effects in syllogistic reasoning: Implications for mental models theory

Two experiments are reported in which the representational distinctiveness of terms within categorical syllogisms was manipulated in order to examine the assumption of mental models theory that abstract, spatially based representations underpin deduction. In Experiment 1, participants evaluated conclusion validity for syllogisms containing either phonologically distinctive terms (e.g., harks, paps, and fids) or phonologically nondistinctive terms (e.g., fuds, fods, and feds). Logical performance was enhanced with the distinctive contents, suggesting that the phonological properties of syllogism terms can play an important role in deduction. In Experiment 2, participants received either the phonological materials from Experiment 1 or syllogisms involving distinctive or nondistinctive visual contents. Logical inference was again enhanced for the distinctive contents, whether phonological or visual in nature. Our findings suggest a broad involvement of multimodal information in syllogistic reasoning and question the assumed primacy of abstract, spatially organized representations in deduction, as is claimed by mental models theorists.     

The role of stimulus material in determining release from proactive inhibition

The release from proactive inhibition (PI) paradigm has been widely used as a technique for exploring the encoding dimensions of short-term memory for verbal items. PI release data have been used not only to infer particular memory codes but also to index their relative salience. In the present study, the effects of manipulating the colour (red or black) in which the stimulus material is printed were investigated in two separate experiments. No release effect was obtained in the first, where common two-syllable words were presented. In the second, where consonant trigrams were presented, a large effect was found. Since the same colour feature was manipulated in each experiment, it is argued that this pattern of results has serious implications for the use of PI release data as a technique for mapping the encoding dimensions of short-term memory.     

Implications of developmental theories for counseling adolescents in groups

This paper presents a rationale for the use of group techniques in counseling adolescents, based on selected developmental theories. In addition, it delineates specific practical implications and guidelines for group counselors to consider. Specifically, group selection, group size and composition, and topical content are discussed as they relate to developmental issues during adolescence.     

The effect of reinforcement and verbal rehearsal on selective attention in learning-disabled children

A central-incidental task of selective attention was administered to 100 learning-disabled boys — 48 younger children (81/2–101/2 years) and 52 older children (101/2–121/2 years). Subjects at both age levels were assigned to one of four conditions: (a) a standard condition; (b) a rehearsal condition, in which subjects were taught a verbal rehearsal strategy; (c) a reinforcement condition, in which correct responses were rewarded; and (d) a combined rehearsal-reinforcement condition. Older subjects recalled more central task but not more incidental task information than younger subjects. A measure of selective attention efficiency was also greater for older than for younger subjects. Central recall in the rehearsal-reinforcement condition was greater than in any other condition. Central recall was greater in the rehearsal condition than in the standard and reinforcement conditions. Selective attention efficiency was greater for both rehearsal conditions than for both nonrehearsal conditions. Incidental recall was higher for reinforcement subjects than for rehearsal subjects. Results suggest that induced verbal rehearsal improves central recall and selective attention in learning-disabled children. Reinforcement alone does not improve central recall but may when paired with rehearsal.This article is based on a Ph.D. dissertation completed by the senior author at the University of Virginia. Preparation of this article was supported in part by a contract (300-77-0495) from the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, Office of Education, for the University of Virginia Learning Disabilities Research Institute.